1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Sociology
  4. Volume 49, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Sociology

Volume 49, 2023

Social Isolation: An Unequally Distributed Health Hazard

Abstract

Social isolation is a potent predictor of poor health, mortality, and dementia risk. A great deal of research across national contexts provides causal evidence for these linkages and identifies key explanatory mechanisms through which isolation affects health. Research on social isolation recognizes that some people are more likely than others to be isolated, but over the past several decades, researchers have focused primarily on the consequences of isolation for health rather than a systematic assessment of the social conditions that foster isolation over the life course. In this article, we review the available evidence on inequities in social isolation and develop a conceptual framework to guide future research on structural systems that fuel social isolation over the life course. Future work in this area has the potential to identify root causes of inequality in social isolation, as well as targeted policy levers to reduce isolation in vulnerable populations.

Keyword(s): disparities, ethnicity, gender, life course, race, sexuality, social isolation, socioeconomic status
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-012001
2023-07-31
2024-04-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/49/1/annurev-soc-031021-012001.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-012001&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alcaraz KI, Eddens KS, Blase JL, Diver WR, Patel AV et al. 2019. Social isolation and mortality in US black and white men and women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 188:1102–9
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT. 2017. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. Lancet 389:100771453–63
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Barger SD, Uchino BN. 2017. Racial and ethnic variation in the association of social integration with mortality: ten-year prospective population-based US study. Sci. Rep. 7:143874
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Bartley EJ, Fillingim RB. 2013. Sex differences in pain: a brief review of clinical and experimental findings. Br. J. Anaesth. 111:152–58
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Bharmal N, Derose KP, Felician MF, Weden MM. 2015. Understanding the upstream social determinants of health Work. Pap., RAND Corp., Santa Monica CA: https://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/WR1096.html
  6. Bird CE, Rieker PP. 2008. Gender and Health: The Effects of Constrained Choices and Social Policies Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  7. Boen C. 2016. The role of socioeconomic factors in Black-White health inequities across the life course: point-in-time measures, long-term exposures, and differential health returns. Soc. Sci. Med. 170:63–76
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Boen C. 2020. Death by a thousand cuts: stress exposure and Black-White disparities in physiological functioning in late life. J. Gerontol. B 75:91937–50
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bowen ME, González HM. 2010. Childhood socioeconomic position and disability in later life: results of the Health and Retirement Study. Am. J. Public Health 100:S1S197–203
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Braun KL, LaCounte C. 2014. The historic and ongoing issue of health disparities among native elders. Generations 38:460–69
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Brown TH, Homan PA. 2022. Frontiers in measuring structural racism and its health effects. Health Serv. Res. 57:3443–47
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Cacioppo JT, Patrick W. 2008. Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
  13. Carr D, Utz RL. 2020. Families in later life: a decade in review. J. Marriage Fam. 82:1346–63
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Chatters LM, Taylor HO, Nicklett EJ, Taylor RJ. 2018. Correlates of objective social isolation from family and friends among older adults. Healthcare 6:124
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Chêne G, Beiser A, Au R, Preis SR, Wolf PA et al. 2015. Gender and incidence of dementia in the Framingham Heart Study from mid-adult life. Alzheimer's Dement 11:3310–20
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Collins PH, Bilge S. 2020. Intersectionality Cambridge, UK: Polity
  17. Cornwell B. 2015. Social disadvantage and network turnover. J. Gerontol. B 70:1132–142
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Cornwell B, Laumann EO, Schumm LP. 2008. The social connectedness of older adults: a national profile. Am. Sociol. Rev. 73:2185–203
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Cornwell B, Schafer MH 2016. Social networks in later life. Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences LK George, KF Ferraro 181–201. Cambridge, MA: Academic. 8th ed.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Coyle CE, Dugan E 2012. Social isolation, loneliness and health among older adults. J. Aging Health 24:81346–63
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Crenshaw K. 1991. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanf. Law Rev. 43:61241–99
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Crimmins EM, Saito Y, Kim JK, Zhang YS, Sasson I, Hayward MD. 2018. Educational differences in the prevalence of dementia and life expectancy with dementia: changes from 2000 to 2010. J. Gerontol. B 73:Suppl. 1S20–28
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Cudjoe TKM, Roth DL, Szanton SL, Wolff JL, Boyd CM, Thorpe RJ Jr. 2020. The epidemiology of social isolation: National Health and Aging Trends Study. J. Gerontol. B 75:1107–13
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Daw J, Verdery AM, Margolis R. 2016. Kin count(s): educational and racial differences in extended kinship in the United States. Popul. Dev. Rev. 42:3491–517
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Donnelly R, Lin Z, Umberson D. 2021. Family member death, social isolation, and cardiometabolic health: racial disadvantage in the U.S. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, virtual meeting, May 5–8
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Dunatchik A, Gerson K, Glass J, Jacobs JA, Stritzel H. 2021. Gender, parenting, and the rise of remote work during the pandemic: implications for domestic inequality in the United States. Gend. Soc. 35:2194–205
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Ertel KA, Glymour MM, Berkman LF. 2008. Effects of social integration on preserving memory function in a nationally representative US elderly population. Am. J. Public Health 98:71215–20
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Espinoza R. 2011. The Diverse Elders Coalition and LGBT aging: connecting communities, issues, and resources in a historic moment. Public Policy Aging Rep 21:38–12
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Evans O, Rubin M. 2022. In a class on their own: investigating the role of social integration in the association between social class and mental well-being. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 48:5690–703
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Farina MP, Hayward MD, Kim JK, Crimmins EM. 2020. Racial and educational disparities in dementia and dementia-free life expectancy. J. Gerontol. B 75:7e105–12
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Floyd FJ, Bakeman R. 2006. Coming-out across the life course: implications of age and historical context. Arch. Sex. Behav. 35:3287–96
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Fredriksen-Goldsen K. 2018. Shifting social context in the lives of LGBTQ older adults. Public Policy Aging Rep 28:124–28
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Freedman VA, Wolf DA, Spillman BC. 2016. Disability-free life expectancy over 30 years: a growing female disadvantage in the US population. Am. J. Public Health 106:61079–85
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Garcia J, Vargas N, Clark JL, Magaña Álvarez M, Nelons DA, Parker RG 2020. Social isolation and connectedness as determinants of well-being: global evidence mapping focused on LGBTQ youth. Glob. Public Health 15:4497–519
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Gee GC, Hicken MT. 2021. Structural racism: the rules and relations of inequity. Ethn. Dis. 31:Suppl. 1293–300
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Gehlert S, Sohmer D, Sacks T, Mininger C, McClintock M, Olopade O. 2008. Targeting health disparities: a model linking upstream determinants to downstream interventions. Health Aff 27:2339–49
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Girgus JS, Yang K, Ferri CV. 2017. The gender difference in depression: are elderly women at greater risk for depression than elderly men?. Geriatrics 2:435
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Goosby BJ, Cheadle JE, Mitchell C. 2018. Stress-related biosocial mechanisms of discrimination and African American health inequities. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 44:319–40
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Gosling VK. 2008. ‘I've always managed, that's what we do’: social capital and women's experiences of social exclusion. Sociol. Res. Online 13:11–14
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Hatzenbuehler ML. 2009. How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychol. Bull. 135:5707–30
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Hatzenbuehler ML. 2016. Structural stigma: research evidence and implications for psychological science. Am. Psychol. 71:8742–51
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Hatzenbuehler ML, Birkett M, Van Wagenen A, Meyer IH. 2014. Protective school climates and reduced risk for suicide ideation in sexual minority youths. Am. J. Public Health 104:2279–86
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Hatzenbuehler ML, Prins SJ, Flake M, Philbin M, Frazer MS et al. 2017. Immigration policies and mental health morbidity among Latinos: a state-level analysis. Soc. Sci. Med. 174:169–78
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Holt-Lunstad J, Robles TF, Sbarra DA. 2017. Advancing social connection as a public health priority in the United States. Am. Psychol. 72:6517–30
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB. 2016. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for CVD: implications for evidence-based patient care and scientific inquiry. Heart 102:13987–89
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Baker M, Harris T, Stephenson D. 2015. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10:2227–37
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Homan P. 2019. Structural sexism and health in the United States: a new perspective on health inequality and the gender system. Am. Sociol. Rev. 84:3486–516
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Homan P, Brown TH, King B. 2021. Structural intersectionality as a new direction for health disparities research. J. Health Soc. Behav. 62:3350–70
     [Google Scholar]
  49. House JS, Landis KR, Umberson D. 1988. Social relationships and health. Science 241:4865540–45
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Hummer RA, Hayward MD. 2015. Hispanic older adult health and longevity in the United States: current patterns and concerns for the future. Daedalus 144:220–30
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Johnson KC, LeBlanc AJ, Sterzing PR, Deardorff J, Antin T, Bockting WO 2020. Trans adolescents’ perceptions and experiences of their parents’ supportive and rejecting behaviors. J. Couns. Psychol. 67:2156–70
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Kamis C, Copeland M. 2020. The long arm of social integration: gender, adolescent social networks, and adult depressive symptom trajectories. J. Health Soc. Behav. 61:4437–52
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Ka‘opua LS, Braun KL, Browne CV, Mokuau N, Park C-B. 2011. Why are native Hawaiians underrepresented in Hawai‘i's older adult population? Exploring social and behavioral factors of longevity. J. Aging Res. 2011:701232
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Klinenberg E. 2016. Social isolation, loneliness, and living alone: identifying the risks for public health. Am. J. Public Health 106:5786–87
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Kotwal AA, Cenzer IS, Waite LJ, Covinsky KE, Perissinotto CM et al. 2021. The epidemiology of social isolation and loneliness among older adults during the last years of life. J. Adolesc. Health 69:113081–91
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Krieger N. 2020. Measures of racism, sexism, heterosexism, and gender binarism for health equity research: from structural injustice to embodied harm—an ecosocial analysis. Annu. Rev. Public Health 41:37–62
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Laursen B, Hartl AC. 2013. Understanding loneliness during adolescence: developmental changes that increase the risk of perceived social isolation. J. Adolesc. 36:61261–68
     [Google Scholar]
  58. LeBlanc AJ, Frost DM, Bowen K. 2018. Legal marriage, unequal recognition, and mental health among same-sex couples. J. Marriage Fam. 80:2397–408
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Li Q, Loke AY. 2013. A spectrum of hidden morbidities among spousal caregivers for patients with cancer, and differences between the genders: a review of the literature. Eur. J. Oncol. Nurs. 17:5578–87
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Link BG, Phelan J. 1995. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1995:80–94
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Liu H, Lin Z, Umberson D. 2022. Parental death and cognitive impairment: an examination by gender and race-ethnicity. J. Gerontol. B 77:61164–76
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Liu L. 2011. Social connections, diabetes mellitus, and risk of mortality among white and African-American adults aged 70 and older: an eight-year follow-up study. Ann. Epidemiol. 21:126–33
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Margolis R, Verdery AM. 2017. Older adults without close kin in the United States. J. Gerontol. B 72:4688–93
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Martin SP. 2006. Trends in marital dissolution by women's education in the United States. Demogr. Res. 15:20537–60
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Martos AJ, Nezhad S, Meyer IH. 2015. Variations in sexual identity milestones among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Sex. Res. Soc. Policy. 12:124–33
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Mayeda ER, Glymour MM, Quesenberry CP, Whitmer RA 2016. Inequalities in dementia incidence between six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years. Alzheimer's Dement 12:3216–24
     [Google Scholar]
  67. McLean CP, Asnaani A, Litz BT, Hofmann SG. 2011. Gender differences in anxiety disorders: prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. J. Psychiatr. Res. 45:81027–35
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Meyer IH. 2003. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol. Bull. 129:5674–97
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Meyer IH, Russell ST, Hammack PL, Frost DM, Wilson BDM. 2021. Minority stress, distress, and suicide attempts in three cohorts of sexual minority adults: a U.S. probability sample. PLOS ONE 16:3e0246827
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Miyawaki CE. 2015. Association of social isolation and health across different racial and ethnic groups of older Americans. Ageing Soc 35:102201–28
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Montez JK, Brooks JD 2021. Educational attainment and adult health. Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences KF Ferraro, D Carr 83–98. Cambridge, MA: Academic. , 9th ed..
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Montez JK, Hayward MD. 2014. Cumulative childhood adversity, educational attainment, and active life expectancy among U.S. adults. Demography 51:2413–35
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Moyano N, del Mar Sánchez-Fuentes M 2020. Homophobic bullying at schools: a systematic review of research, prevalence, school-related predictors and consequences. Aggress. Violent Behav. 53:101441
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Naito R, Leong DP, Bangdiwala SI, McKee M, Subramanian SV et al. 2021. Impact of social isolation on mortality and morbidity in 20 high-income, middle-income and low-income countries in five continents. BMJ Glob. Health 6:3e004124
     [Google Scholar]
  75. NASEM (Natl. Acad. Sci. Eng. Med.) 2020a. Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults: Opportunities for the Health Care System Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  76. NASEM (Natl. Acad. Sci. Eng. Med.) 2020b. Understanding the Well-Being of LGBTQI+ Populations Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  77. NASEM (Natl. Acad. Sci. Eng. Med.) 2022. Reducing Inequalities Between Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Adolescents and Cisgender, Heterosexual Adolescents: Proceedings of a Workshop Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  78. Nicholson NR. 2012. A review of social isolation: an important but underassessed condition in older adults. J. Prim. Prev. 33:2137–52
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Pantell M, Rehkopf D, Jutte D, Syme SL, Balmes J, Adler N. 2013. Social isolation: a predictor of mortality comparable to traditional clinical risk factors. Am. J. Public Health 103:112056–62
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Parker CM, Hirsch JS, Philbin MM, Parker RG. 2018. The urgent need for research and interventions to address family-based stigma and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth. J. Adolesc. Health 63:4383–93
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Patterson CJ. 2019. Lesbian and gay parenthood. Handbook of Parenting MH Bornstein 345–71. New York: Routledge. , 3rd ed..
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Pearson JA. 2008. Can't buy me whiteness: new lessons from the Titanic on race, ethnicity, and health. Du Bois Rev 5:127–47
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Penninkilampi R, Casey A-N, Singh MF, Brodaty H. 2018. The association between social engagement, loneliness, and risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Alzheimer's Dis. 66:41619–33
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Perissinotto CM, Covinsky KE. 2014. Living alone, socially isolated or lonely—what are we measuring?. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 29:111429–31
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Perry BL, Pescosolido BA, Borgatti SP. 2018. Egocentric Network Analysis: Foundations, Methods, and Models Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  86. Phelan JC, Link BG, Tehranifar P. 2010. Social conditions as fundamental causes of health inequalities: theory, evidence, and policy implications. J. Health Soc. Behav. 51:Suppl. 1S28–40
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Philbin MM, Flake M, Hatzenbuehler ML, Hirsch JS. 2018. State-level immigration and immigrant-focused policies as drivers of Latino health disparities in the United States. Soc. Sci. Med. 199:29–38
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Pickett KE, Wilkinson RG. 2015. Income inequality and health: a causal review. Soc. Sci. Med. 128:316–26
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Polivka LJ. 2017. Women and the crisis of care in the United States. Generations 41:429–35
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Ratcliff KS. 2017. The Social Determinants of Health: Looking Upstream Cambridge, UK: Polity
  91. Read JG, Gorman BK. 2010. Gender and health inequality. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 36:371–86
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Read S, Comas-Herrera A, Grundy E. 2020. Social isolation and memory decline in later-life. J. Gerontol. B 75:2367–76
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Reczek C. 2020. Sexual- and gender-minority families: a 2010 to 2020 decade in review. J. Marriage Fam. 82:1300–325
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Ridgeway CL. 2011. Framed by Gender: How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  95. Robinson BA. 2020. Coming Out to the Streets: LGBTQ Youth Experiencing Homelessness Oakland: Univ. Calif. Press
  96. Russell D, Taylor J. 2009. Living alone and depressive symptoms: the influence of gender, physical disability, and social support among Hispanic and non-Hispanic older adults. J. Gerontol. B 64B:195–104
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Snapp SD, Watson RJ, Russell ST, Diaz RM, Ryan C. 2015. Social support networks for LGBT young adults: low cost strategies for positive adjustment. Fam. Relat. 64:3420–30
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Steptoe A, Shankar A, Demakakos P, Wardle J. 2013. Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. PNAS 110:155797–5801
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Sternthal MJ, Slopen N, Williams DR. 2011. Racial disparities in health: How much does stress really matter?. Du Bois Rev 8:195–113
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Tanskanen J, Anttila T. 2016. A prospective study of social isolation, loneliness, and mortality in Finland. Am. J. Public Health 106:112042–48
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Tate DP, Patterson CJ. 2019. Desire for parenthood in context of other life aspirations among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual young adults. Front. Psychol. 10: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02679
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. Taylor RJ, Chatters LM, Jackson JS. 2007. Religious and spiritual involvement among older African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and non-Hispanic Whites: findings from the National Survey of American Life. J. Gerontol. B 62:4S238–50
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Taylor RJ, Chatters LM, Taylor HO. 2019. Race and objective social isolation: older African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites. J. Gerontol. B 74:81429–40
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Taylor RJ, Chatters LM, Woodward AT, Brown E. 2013. Racial and ethnic differences in extended family, friendship, fictive kin, and congregational informal support networks. Fam. Relat. 62:4609–24
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Taylor SE. 2011. Social support: a review. The Oxford Handbook of Health Psychology HS Friedman 189–214. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Tomaka J, Thompson S, Palacios R. 2006. The relation of social isolation, loneliness, and social support to disease outcomes among the elderly. J. Aging Health 18:3359–84
     [Google Scholar]
  107. Uchino BN, Bowen K, Carlisle M, Birmingham W 2012. Psychological pathways linking social support to health outcomes: a visit with the “ghosts” of research past, present, and future. Soc. Sci. Med. 74:7949–57
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Umberson D. 2017. Black deaths matter: race, relationship loss, and effects on survivors. J. Health Soc. Behav. 58:4405–20
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Umberson D, Donnelly R. 2022. The death of a child and parents’ psychological distress in mid to later life: racial/ethnic differences in exposure and vulnerability. J. Gerontol. B 77:81561–70
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Umberson D, Lin Z, Cha H. 2022. Gender and social isolation across the life course. J. Health Soc. Behav. 63:3319–35
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Umberson D, Montez JK. 2010. Social relationships and health: a flashpoint for health policy. J. Health Soc. Behav. 51:S54–66
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Umberson D, Olson JS, Crosnoe R, Liu H, Pudrovska T, Donnelly R. 2017. Death of family members as an overlooked source of racial disadvantage in the United States. PNAS 114:5915–20
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Umberson D, Thomeer MB. 2020. Family matters: research on family ties and health, 2010 to 2020. J. Marriage Fam. 82:1404–19
     [Google Scholar]
  114. US Dep. Health Hum. Serv 2013. Disparities Indian Health Serv. Rockville, MD: https://www.ihs.gov/newsroom/factsheets/disparities
  115. Valtorta NK, Kanaan M, Gilbody S, Ronzi S, Hanratty B. 2016. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart 102:131009–16
     [Google Scholar]
  116. VandenBos GR 2015. APA Dictionary of Psychology Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc., 2nd ed..
  117. Verdery AM, Margolis R. 2017. Projections of white and black older adults without living kin in the United States, 2015 to 2060. PNAS 114:4211109–14
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Viruell-Fuentes EA, Morenoff JD, Williams DR, House JS. 2013. Contextualizing nativity status, Latino social ties, and ethnic enclaves: an examination of the ‘immigrant social ties hypothesis. .’ Ethn. Health 18:6586–609
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Walters KL, Mohammed SA, Evans-Campbell T, Beltrán RE, Chae DH, Duran B. 2011. Bodies don't just tell stories, they tell histories: embodiment of historical trauma among American Indians and Alaska Natives. Du Bois Rev 8:1179–89
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Wardecker BM, Matsick JL. 2020. Families of choice and community connectedness: a brief guide to the social strengths of LGBTQ older adults. J. Gerontol. Nurs. 46:25–8
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Warr DJ. 2005. Social networks in a ‘discredited’ neighbourhood. J. Sociol. 41:3285–308
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Watson RJ, Grossman AH, Russell ST. 2019. Sources of social support and mental health among LGB youth. Youth Soc 51:130–48
     [Google Scholar]
  123. Williams DR. 2018. Stress and the mental health of populations of color: advancing our understanding of race-related stressors. J. Health Soc. Behav. 59:4466–85
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Leavell J, Collins C. 2010. Race, socioeconomic status, and health: complexities, ongoing challenges, and research opportunities. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1186:169–101
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Yang YC, Boen C, Gerken K, Li T, Schorpp K, Harris KM. 2016. Social relationships and physiological determinants of longevity across the human life span. PNAS 113:3578–83
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Yang YC, Li T, Ji Y. 2013a. Impact of social integration on metabolic functions: evidence from a nationally representative longitudinal study of US older adults. BMC Public Health 13:11210
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Yang YC, McClintock MK, Kozloski M, Li T. 2013b. Social isolation and adult mortality: the role of chronic inflammation and sex differences. J. Health Soc. Behav. 54:2183–203
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Zajacova A, Lawrence EM. 2018. The relationship between education and health: reducing disparities through a contextual approach. Annu. Rev. Public Health 39:273–89
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Zivin K, Christakis NA. 2007. The emotional toll of spousal morbidity and mortality. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatr. 15:9772–79
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-012001
Loading
Social Isolation: An Unequally Distributed Health Hazard
Annual Review of Sociology 49, 379 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-012001
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-012001
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-012001
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error