1932

Abstract

We review accumulating evidence that implicates the language encoding and production system in children and adults who stutter. Stuttering is unique in its onset during the most dynamic stages of language acquisition, after apparently successful mastery of early language skills. We review older theories of stuttering that have given way to an understanding of stuttering's underlying bases in cortical and subcortical networks. Behavioral data suggest strong influences of language encoding demand on the frequency and location of stuttered events; psycholinguistic findings suggest atypical language processing in the absence of overt speech. We discuss the probable neuroanatomical and neurophysiological bases of these findings, with implications for therapeutic intervention.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-044754
2024-01-16
2024-05-02
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/linguistics/10/1/annurev-linguistics-030521-044754.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-044754&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alm PA. 2004. Stuttering and the basal ganglia circuits: a critical review of possible relations. J. Commun. Disord. 37:4325–96
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Alm PA. 2021. The dopamine system and automatization of movement sequences: a review with relevance for speech and stuttering. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 15:662204
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Alshatti T, Robb MP, Alfoudari B, Abdalla FA. 2022. Differential stuttering during conversation and oral reading in Kuwaiti-Arabic speakers: a note on diglossia. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 36:6515–27
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Al-Tamimi F, Khamaiseh Z, Howell P. 2013. Phonetic complexity and stuttering in Arabic. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 27:12874–87
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Ambrose NG, Yairi E, Loucks TM, Seery CH, Throneburg R. 2015. Relation of motor, linguistic and temperament factors in epidemiologic subtypes of persistent and recovered stuttering: initial findings. J. Fluency Disord. 45:12–26
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Anderson JD, Wagovich SA. 2010. Relationships among linguistic processing speed, phonological working memory, and attention in children who stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 35:3216–34
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Ardila A, Ramos E, Barrocas R. 2011. Patterns of stuttering in a Spanish/English bilingual: a case report. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 25:123–36
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Aryal D, Maruthy S. 2023. Linguistic factors and stuttering in Nepali speaking adults who stutter. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 37:3258–71
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Auclair-Ouellet N, Lieberman P, Monchi O. 2017. Contribution of language studies to the understanding of cognitive impairment and its progression over time in Parkinson's disease. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 80:657–72
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Au-Yeung J, Gomez IV, Howell P. 2003. Exchange of disfluency with age from function words to content words in Spanish speakers who stutter. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 46:3754–65
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Au-Yeung J, Howell P. 1998. Phonological words and stuttering on function words. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 41:51019–31
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bernstein NE. 1981. Are there constraints on childhood disfluency?. J. Fluency Disord. 6:4341–50
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bernstein Ratner N. 2005. Is phonetic complexity a useful construct in understanding stuttering?. J. Fluency Disord. 30:4337–41
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bernstein Ratner N, Benitez M. 1985. Linguistic analysis of a bilingual stutterer. J. Fluency Disord. 10:3211–19
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bernstein Ratner N, Sih CC. 1987. Effects of gradual increases in sentence length and complexity on children's dysfluency. J. Speech Hear. Disord. 52:278–87
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bernstein Ratner N, Wijnen F. 2007. The vicious circle: linguistic encoding, self-monitoring and stuttering. Proceedings of the 5th World Congress on Fluency Disorders J Au-Yeung 84–90. Bethesda, MD: Int. Fluency Assoc.
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bialystok E. 2011. Reshaping the mind: the benefits of bilingualism. Can. J. Exp. Psychol./Rev. Can. Psychol. Exp. 65:4229–35
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bishop DVM. 2017. Why is it so hard to reach agreement on terminology? The case of developmental language disorder (DLD). Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord. 52:6671–80
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bishop DVM, North T, Donlan C. 1996. Nonword repetition as a behavioural marker for inherited language impairment: evidence from a twin study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip. 37:391–403
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Blood GW, Blood IM. 2016. Long-term consequences of childhood bullying in adults who stutter: social anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, self-esteem, and satisfaction with life. J. Fluency Disord. 50:72–84
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Blood GW, Ridenour VJ Jr., Qualls CD, Hammer CS. 2003. Co-occurring disorders in children who stutter. J. Commun. Disord. 36:6427–49
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bloodstein O. 1960. The development of stuttering. I. Changes in nine basic features. J. Speech Hear. Disord. 25:3219–37
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Bloodstein O. 1993. Stuttering: The Search for a Cause and Cure Boston: Allyn & Bacon
  24. Bloodstein O, Gantwerk BF. 1967. Grammatical function in relation to stuttering in young children. J. Speech Hear. Res. 10:786–89
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Bloodstein O, Bernstein Ratner N, Brundage SB. 2021. A Handbook on Stuttering San Diego, CA: Plural, 7th ed..
  26. Boey RA, Van de Heyning PH, Wuyts FL, Heylen L, Stoop R et al. 2009. Awareness and reactions of young stuttering children aged 2–7 years old towards their speech disfluency. J. Commun. Disord. 42:5334–46
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Brown R. 1973. A First Language: The Early Stages Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  28. Brown SF. 1938a. A further study of stuttering in relation to various speech sounds. Q. J. Speech 24:390–97
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Brown SF. 1938b. Stuttering with relation to word accent and word position. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol. 33:112–20
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Brown SF. 1938c. The theoretical importance of certain factors influencing the incidence of stuttering. J. Speech Disord. 3:223–30
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Brundage SB, Bernstein Ratner N. 1989. The measurement of stuttering frequency in children's speech. J. Fluency Disord. 14:5351–58
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Busan P. 2020. Developmental stuttering and the role of the supplementary motor cortex. J. Fluency Disord. 64:105763
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Byrd CT. 2018. Assessing bilingual children: Are their disfluencies indicative of stuttering or the by-product of navigating two languages?. Semin. Speech Lang. 39:324–32
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Byrd CT, Bedore LM, Ramos D. 2015. The disfluent speech of bilingual Spanish-English children: considerations for differential diagnosis of stuttering. Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch. 46:130–43
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Byrd CT, Gkalitsiou Z, Werle D, Coalson GA. 2018. Exploring the effectiveness of an intensive treatment program for school-age children who stutter, Camp Dream. Speak. Live.: a follow-up study. Semin. Speech Lang. 39:458–68
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Byrd CT, Vallely M, Anderson JD, Sussman H. 2012. Nonword repetition and phoneme elision in adults who do and do not stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 37:3188–201
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Caruso AJ, Abbs JH, Gracco VL. 1988. Kinematic analysis of multiple movement coordination during speech in stutterers. Brain 111:Part 2439–55
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Caughter S, Crofts V. 2018. Nurturing a resilient mindset in school-aged children who stutter. Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol. 27:41111–23
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Chang SE, Angstadt M, Chow HM, Etchell AC, Garnett EO et al. 2018. Anomalous network architecture of the resting brain in children who stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 55:46–67
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Chang SE, Chow HM, Wieland EA, McAuley JD. 2016. Relation between functional connectivity and rhythm discrimination in children who do and do not stutter. NeuroImage 12:442–50
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Chang SE, Garnett EO, Etchell A, Chow HM. 2019. Functional and neuroanatomical bases of developmental stuttering: current insights. Neuroscientist 25:6566–82
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Chang SE, Guenther FH. 2020. Involvement of the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loop in developmental stuttering. Front. Psychol. 10:3088
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Chaudhary C, Maruthy S, Guddattu V, Krishnan G. 2021. A systematic review on the role of language-related factors in the manifestation of stuttering in bilinguals. J. Fluency Disord. 68:105829
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Choi D, Sim H, Park H, Clark CE, Kim H. 2020. Loci of stuttering of English- and Korean-speaking children who stutter: preliminary findings. J. Fluency Disord. 64:105762
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Choo AL, Smith SA. 2020. Bilingual children who stutter: convergence, gaps and directions for research. J. Fluency Disord. 63:105741
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Chow HM, Chang SE. 2017. White matter developmental trajectories associated with persistence and recovery of childhood stuttering. Hum. Brain Mapp. 38:73345–59
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Coalson GA, Byrd CT. 2016. Phonetic complexity of words immediately following utterance-initial productions in children who stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 47:56–69
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Craig-McQuaide A, Akram H, Zrinzo L, Tripoliti E. 2014. A review of brain circuitries involved in stuttering. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:884
    [Google Scholar]
  49. De Houwer A. 2009. Bilingual First Language Acquisition Bristol, UK: Multiling. Matters
  50. Dromey C, Bates E. 2005. Speech interactions with linguistic, cognitive, and visuomotor tasks. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 48:295–305
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Frankford SA, Cai S, Nieto-Castañón A, Guenther FH. 2022. Auditory feedback control in adults who stutter during metronome-paced speech. II. Formant perturbation. J. Fluency Disord. 74:105928
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Gahl S. 2020. Bilingualism as a purported risk factor for stuttering: a close look at a seminal study (Travis et al. 1937). J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 63:113680–84
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Gahl S. 2023. Bilingualism as a risk factor for false reports of stuttering in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K:2011). Front. Psychol. 14:1155895
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Garnett EO, Chow HM, Chang SE. 2019. Neuroanatomical correlates of childhood stuttering: MRI indices of white and gray matter development that differentiate persistence versus recovery. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 62:Suppl. 82986–98
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Gerhold K, Eaton CT, Newman RS, Bernstein Ratner N. 2019. Early phonological predictors of toddler language outcomes. . Folia Phon. Logop. 72:6442–53
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Gerwin KL, Weber C. 2020. Neural indices mediating rhyme discrimination differ for some young children who stutter regardless of eventual recovery or persistence. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 63:41053–70
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Gillam R, Marquardt T. 2021. Communication Sciences and Disorders: From Science to Clinical Practice Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett. , 4th ed..
  58. Goldman-Eisler F. 1961. A comparative study of two hesitation phenomena. Lang. Speech 4:18–26
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Häge A. 2001. Is there a link between the development of cognitive-linguistic abilities in children and the course of stuttering?. Fluency Disorders: Theory, Research, Treatment and Self-Help. Proceedings of the 3rd World Congress on Fluency Disorders H-G Bosshardt, JS Yaruss, HFM Peters 192–94. Nijmegen, Neth: Nijmegen Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Hakim HB, Bernstein Ratner N. 2004. Nonword repetition abilities of children who stutter: an exploratory study. J. Fluency Disord. 29:3179–99
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Hollister J, Van Horne AO, Zebrowski P. 2017. The relationship between grammatical development and disfluencies in preschool children who stutter and those who recover. Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol. 26:144–56
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Howell P, Davis S, Williams R. 2009. The effects of bilingualism on stuttering during late childhood. Arch. Dis. Child. 94:142–46
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Howell P, van Borsel J, eds. 2011. Multilingual Aspects of Fluency Disorders Bristol, UK: Multiling. Matters
  64. Jackson ES, Wijeakumar S, Beal DS, Brown B, Zebrowski PM et al. 2021. Speech planning and execution in children who stutter: preliminary findings from a fNIRS investigation. J. Clin. Neurosci. 91:32–42
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Johnson W, Brown SF. 1935. Stuttering in relation to various speech sounds. Q. J. Speech 21:481–96
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Jones M, Onslow M, Packman A, O'Brian S, Hearne A et al. 2008. Extended follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of the Lidcombe Program of early stuttering intervention. Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord. 43:6649–61
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Jones M, Onslow M, Packman A, Williams S, Ormond T et al. 2005. Randomised controlled trial of the Lidcombe programme of early stuttering intervention. BMJ 331:659–61
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Kemper S, Herman RE, Lian CHT. 2003. The costs of doing two things at once for young and older adults: talking while walking, finger tapping, and ignoring speech or noise. Psychol. Aging 18:2181–92
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Kornisch M. 2021. Bilinguals who stutter: a cognitive perspective. J. Fluency Disord. 67:105819
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Kroll JF, Mendoza GA. 2022. Bilingualism: a cognitive and neural view of the dual language experience. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology I Johnsrude Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.900
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  71. Leclercq AL, Suaire P, Moyse A. 2018. Beyond stuttering: speech disfluencies in normally fluent French-speaking children at age 4. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 32:2166–79
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Leech KA, Bernstein Ratner N, Brown B, Weber CM. 2017. Preliminary evidence that growth in productive language differentiates childhood stuttering persistence and recovery. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 60:113097–109
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Leech KA, Bernstein Ratner N, Brown B, Weber CM. 2019. Language growth predicts stuttering persistence over and above family history and treatment experience: response to Marcotte. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 62:51371–72
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Lehmann C. 2019. A mouse model offers new clues to the underlying mechanism at work in stuttering. NeurologyToday Oct. 3. https://journals.lww.com/neurotodayonline/Fulltext/2019/10030/A_Mouse_Model_Offers_New_Clues_to_the_Underlying.10.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lescht E, Dickey MW, Stockbridge MD, Bernstein Ratner N. 2022. Adults who stutter show diminished word fluency, regardless of mode. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 65:3906–22
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Li W, Mai X, Liu C. 2014. The default mode network and social understanding of others: What do brain connectivity studies tell us?. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:74
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lim VP, Lincoln M, Chan YH, Onslow M. 2008. Stuttering in English-Mandarin bilingual speakers: the influence of language dominance on stuttering severity. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 51:61522–37
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Limura D, Takahashi S, Fukazawa N, Morita N, Oe T et al. 2023. Effect of linguistic factors on the occurrence of stuttering-like disfluency among Japanese-speaking preschool children who stutter. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 37:11–16
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Ludlow CL, Loucks T. 2003. Stuttering: a dynamic motor control disorder. J. Fluency Disord. 28:4273–96
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Ludlow CL, Siren K, Zikria M. 1997. Speech production learning in adults with chronic developmental stuttering. Speech Production: Motor Control, Brain Research, and Fluency Disorders W Hulstijn, HMF Peters, PHHM van Lieshout 221–30. Nijmegen, Neth: Nijmegen Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  81. MacPherson MK. 2019. Cognitive load affects speech motor performance differently in older and younger adults. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 62:51258–77
    [Google Scholar]
  82. MacPherson MK, Smith A. 2013. Influences of sentence length and syntactic complexity on the speech motor control of children who stutter. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 56:189–102
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Mamdoh H, Gomaa MA. 2015. Assessment of severity of stuttering in native versus foreign language in secondary (late) bilingual children. Indian J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 67:2132–34
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Maruthy S, Raj N, Geetha MP, Priya CS. 2015. Disfluency characteristics of Kannada-English bilingual adults who stutter. J. Commun. Disord. 56:19–28
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Nippold MA. 2019. Language development in children who stutter: a review of recent research. Int. J. Speech Lang. Pathol. 21:4368–76
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Norcliffe E, Harris AC, Jaeger TF. 2015. Cross-linguistic psycholinguistics and its critical role in theory development: early beginnings and recent advances. Lang. Cogn. Neurosci. 30:91009–32
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Ntourou K, Conture EG, Lipsey MW. 2011. Language abilities of children who stutter: a meta-analytical review. Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol. 20:163–79
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Packman A, Onslow M, Reilly S, Attanasio J, Shenker R. 2009. Stuttering and bilingualism. Arch. Dis. Child. 94:3248–48
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Pelczarski KM, Yaruss JS. 2014. Phonological encoding of young children who stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 39:12–24
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Pelczarski KM, Yaruss JS. 2016. Phonological memory in young children who stutter. J. Commun. Disord. 62:54–66
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Pothen KR, John S, Guddattu V. 2022. Rapid naming ability in adults with stuttering. Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult 29:4761–66
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Sanjeevan T, Rosenbaum DA, Miller C, van Hell JG, Weiss DJ et al. 2015. Motor issues in specific language impairment: a window into the underlying impairment. Curr. Dev. Disord. Rep. 2:228–36
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Seikel J, Drumright D, King W. 2015. Anatomy and Physiology for Speech, Language, and Hearing Boston: Cengage
  94. Sheehan JG. 1974. Stuttering behavior: a phonetic analysis. J. Commun. Disord. 7:3193–212
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Silverman F, Miller L. 2016. Introduction to Communication Sciences and Disorders Austin, TX: Pro Ed. , 5th ed..
  96. Silverman SW, Bernstein Ratner N. 1997. Syntactic complexity, fluency, and accuracy of sentence imitation in adolescents. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 40:195–106
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Singer CM, Hessling A, Kelly EM, Singer L, Jones RM. 2020. Clinical characteristics associated with stuttering persistence: a meta-analysis. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 63:92995–3018
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Singer CM, Otieno S, Chang S-E, Jones RM. 2022. Predicting persistent developmental stuttering using a cumulative risk approach. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 65:170–95
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Sisskin V. 2018. Avoidance Reduction Therapy for Stuttering (ARTS®). More Than Fluency: The Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Dimensions of Stuttering B Amster, E Klein, chapter 9 San Diego, CA: Plural
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Smith A, Kleinow J. 2000. Kinematic correlates of speaking rate changes in stuttering and normally fluent adults. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 43:2521–36
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Smith A, Sadagopan N, Walsh B, Weber-Fox C. 2010. Increasing phonological complexity reveals heightened instability in inter-articulatory coordination in adults who stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 35:11–18
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Smith A, Weber C. 2017. How stuttering develops: the multifactorial dynamic pathways theory. J Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 60:92483–505
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Smits-Bandstra S. 2010. Methodological considerations in the measurement of reaction time in persons who stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 35:119–32
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Sugathan N, Maruthy S. 2020. Nonword repetition and identification skills in Kannada speaking school-aged children who do and do not stutter. J. Fluency Disord. 63:105745
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Sugathan N, Maruthy S. 2021. Predictive factors for persistence and recovery of stuttering in children: a systematic review. Int. J. Speech Lang. Pathol. 23:4359–71
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Taliancich-Klinger CL, Byrd CT, Bedore LM. 2013. The disfluent speech of a Spanish-English bilingual child who stutters. Clin. Linguist. Phon. 27:12888–904
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Tichenor SE, Yaruss JS. 2019. Stuttering as defined by adults who stutter. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 62:124356–69
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Usler E, Smith A, Weber C. 2017. A lag in speech motor coordination during sentence production is associated with stuttering persistence in young children. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 60:151–61
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Van Riper C. 1973. The Treatment of Stuttering Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
  110. Vanryckeghem M, De Niels T, Vanrobaeys S. 2015. The KiddyCAT: a test-retest reliability investigation. Cross-Cult. Commun. 11:10–16
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Wagovich SA, Hall NE. 2018. Stuttering frequency in relation to lexical diversity, syntactic complexity, and utterance length. Commun. Disord. Q. 39:2335–45
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Walden T, Frankel C, Buhr A, Johnson K, Conture EG et al. 2012. Dual diathesis-stressor model of emotional and linguistic contributions to developmental stuttering. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 40:633–44
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Walsh B, Christ S, Weber C. 2021. Exploring relationships among risk factors for persistence in early childhood stuttering. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 64:82909–27
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Walsh B, Mettel KM, Smith A. 2015. Speech motor planning and execution deficits in early childhood stuttering. J. Neurodev. Disord. 7:127
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Weber-Fox C. 2001. Neural systems for sentence processing in stuttering. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 44:4814–25
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Williams DE, Silverman FH, Kools JA. 1968. Disfluency behavior of elementary school stutterers and nonstutterers: the adaptation effect. J. Speech Hear. Res. 11:3622–30
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Wiltshire CE, Chiew M, Chesters J, Healy MP, Watkins KE. 2021. Speech movement variability in people who stutter: a vocal tract magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 64:72438–52
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Woumans E, Van der Linden L, Hartsuiker R, Duyck W, Moerenhout C et al. 2021. Speech fluency in bilinguals who stutter: language proficiency and attentional demands as mediating factors. J. Fluency Disord. 69:105850
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Yairi E, Ambrose N. 2005. Early Childhood Stuttering: For Clinicians by Clinicians Austin, TX: Pro Ed
  120. Yaruss JS. 1999. Utterance length, syntactic complexity, and childhood stuttering. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 42:2329–44
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Zackheim CT, Conture EG. 2003. Childhood stuttering and speech disfluencies in relation to children's mean length of utterance: a preliminary study. J. Fluency Disord. 28:2115–43
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-044754
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-044754
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error