1932

Abstract

This article presents an overview of recent research on the phonetics of early bilinguals, individuals who have acquired both of their languages early in life, by either growing up being exposed to two languages since birth (i.e., simultaneous bilinguals) or having initially learned their first language with the second language introduced at a later stage during their childhood (i.e., early sequential or successive/consecutive bilinguals). This review puts forth empirical evidence from methodologically and theoretically diverse studies on the phonetics of early bilingualism and considers explanations for the observed patterns of cross-linguistic influence on the production, perception, and processing of sounds in both of their languages. Throughout, this article discusses the critical significance of early linguistic experience on bilingual speech patterns, how early-onset bilinguals perceive speech sounds in each language, bilinguals’ phonetic abilities when producing language-specific segmental and suprasegmental features, and the dynamic nature of cross-language sound interactions in early bilingual speech.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-031522-102542
2024-01-16
2024-05-02
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/linguistics/10/1/annurev-linguistics-031522-102542.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-031522-102542&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abrahamson N, Hyltenstam K. 2009. Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Lang. Learn. 59:2249–306
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Amengual M. 2012. Interlingual influence in bilingual speech: cognate status effect in a continuum of bilingualism. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 15:3517–30
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Amengual M. 2016a. Cross-linguistic influence in the bilingual mental lexicon: evidence of cognate effects in the phonetic production and processing of a vowel contrast. Front. Psychol. 7:617
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Amengual M. 2016b. The perception and production of language-specific mid-vowel contrasts: shifting the focus to the bilingual individual in early language input conditions. Int. J. Biling. 20:2133–52
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Amengual M. 2016c. The perception of language-specific phonetic categories does not guarantee accurate phonological representations in the lexicon of early bilinguals. Appl. Psycholinguistics 37:51221–51
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Amengual M. 2016d. Acoustic correlates of the Spanish tap-trill contrast: heritage and L2 Spanish speakers. Herit. Lang. J. 13:288–112
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Amengual M. 2018. Asymmetrical interlingual influence in the production of Spanish and English laterals as a result of competing activation in bilingual language processing. J. Phonetics 69:12–28
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Amengual M. 2019. Type of early bilingualism and its effect on the acoustic realization of allophonic variants: early sequential and simultaneous bilinguals. Int. J. Biling. 23:5954–70
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Amengual M. 2021. The acoustic realization of language-specific phonological categories despite dynamic cross-linguistic influence in bilingual and trilingual speech. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 149:21271–84
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Amengual M. 2023. Cross-language influences in the acquisition of L2 and L3 phonology. Cross-language Influences in Bilingual Language Processing and Second Language Acquisition I Elgort, A Siyanova-Chanturia, M Brysbaert 74–99. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Amengual M, Chamorro P. 2015. The effects of language dominance in the perception and production of the Galician mid vowel contrasts. Phonetica 72:4207–36
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Amengual M, Simonet M. 2020. Language dominance does not always predict cross-linguistic interactions in bilingual speech production. Linguist. Approaches Biling. 10:6847–72
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Antoniou M, Best CT, Tyler MD, Kroos C. 2010. Language context elicits native-like stop voicing in early bilinguals’ productions in both L1 and L2. J. Phonetics 38:4640–53
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Antoniou M, Best CT, Tyler MD, Kroos C. 2011. Inter-language interference in VOT production by L2-dominant bilinguals: asymmetries in phonetic code-switching. J. Phonetics 39:4558–70
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Antoniou M, Liang E, Ettlinger M, Wong PC. 2015. The bilingual advantage in phonetic learning. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 18:4683–95
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Antoniou M, Tyler MD, Best CT. 2012. Two ways to listen: Do L2-dominant bilinguals perceive stop voicing according to language mode?. J. Phonetics 40:4582–94
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Aslin RN, Pisoni DB. 1980. Some developmental processes in speech perception. Child Phonology: Perception and Production G Yeni-Komshian, JF Kavanagh, CA Ferguson 67–96. New York: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Au TK-F, Knightly LM, Jun SA, Oh JS. 2002. Overhearing a language during childhood. Psychol. Sci. 13:3238–43
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Au TK-F, Oh JS, Knightly LM, Jun SA, Romo LF. 2008. Salvaging a childhood language. J. Mem. Lang. 58:4998–1011
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Baker W, Trofimovich P. 2005. Interaction of native-and second-language vowel system(s) in early and late bilinguals. Lang. Speech 48:11–27
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Baird BO. 2015. Pre-nuclear peak alignment in the Spanish of Spanish-K'ichee’ (Mayan) bilinguals. Selected Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Laboratory Approaches to Romance Phonology EW Willis, P Martín Butragueño, E Herrera Zendejas 163–74. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proc. Proj.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Baird BO. 2021. Bilingual language dominance and contrastive focus marking: gradient effects of K'ichee’ syntax on Spanish prosody. Int. J. Biling 25:3500–15
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Balukas C, Koops C. 2015. Spanish-English bilingual voice onset time in spontaneous code-switching. Int. J. Biling. 19:4423–43
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Beristain A. 2021. Type of early bilingualism effect on the delateralization of /ʎ/ in Basque and Spanish. Linguist. Approaches Biling. 11:5700–38
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Best CT, Tyler M. 2007. Nonnative and second-language speech perception: commonalities and complementarities. Language Experience in Second Language Speech Learning, in Honor of James Emil Flege O-S Bohn, MJ Munro 13–24. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Birdsong D. 2014. Dominance and age in bilingualism. Appl. Linguist. 35:4374–92
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Birdsong D, Gertken LM, Amengual M. 2012. Bilingual Language Profile: an easy-to-use instrument to assess bilingualism COERLL Univ. Texas Austin.: https://sites.la.utexas.edu/bilingual/
  28. Bosch L, Costa A, Sebastián-Gallés N. 2000. First and second language vowel perception in early bilinguals. Eur. J. Cogn. Psychol. 12:2189–221
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Bosch L, Sebastián-Gallés N. 2003. Simultaneous bilingualism and the perception of a language-specific vowel contrast in the first year of life. Lang. Speech 46:217–43
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Brown EL, Amengual M. 2015. Fine-grained and probabilistic cross-linguistic influence in the pronunciation of cognates: evidence from corpus-based spontaneous conversation and experimentally elicited data. Stud. Hisp. Lusophone Linguist. 8:159–83
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Bullock BE, Toribio AJ. 2009a. The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-switching Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  32. Bullock BE, Toribio AJ. 2009b. Trying to hit a moving target. Multidisciplinary Approaches to Code Switching L Isurin, D Winford, K de Bot 189–206. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Bullock BE, Toribio AJ, González V, Dalola A. 2006. Language dominance and performance outcomes in bilingual pronunciation. Proceedings of the 8th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference MG O'Brien, C Shea, J Archibald 9–16. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proc. Proj.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Byers E, Yavas M. 2017. Vowel reduction in word-final position by early and late Spanish-English bilinguals. PLOS ONE 12:4e0175226
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Caramazza A, Yeni-Komshian GH, Zurif EB, Carbone E. 1973. The acquisition of a new phonological contrast: The case of stop consonants in French-English bilinguals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 54:2421–28
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Carrasco-Ortiz H, Amengual M, Gries ST. 2021. Cross-language effects of phonological and orthographic similarity in cognate word recognition: the role of language dominance. Linguist. Approaches Biling. 11:3389–417
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Casillas JV. 2015. Production and perception of the /i/-/ɪ/ vowel contrast: the case of L2-dominant early learners of English. Phonetica 72:182–205
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Casillas JV, Simonet M. 2016. Production and perception of the English /æ/-/ɑ/ contrast in switched-dominance speakers. Sec. Lang. Res. 32:2171–95
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Casillas JV, Simonet M. 2018. Perceptual categorization and bilingual language modes: assessing the double phonemic boundary in early and late bilinguals. J. Phonetics 71:51–64
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Chen Pichler D, de Quadros RM, Lillo-Martin D. 2009. Effects of bimodal production on multi-cyclicity in early ASL and Libras. Boston Univ. Child Lang. Dev. Online Proc. Suppl. 34:1–14
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Chládková K, Paillereau N. 2020. The what and when of universal perception: a review of early speech sound acquisition. Lang. Learn. 70:1136–82
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Choi J, Cutler A, Broersma M. 2017. Early development of abstract language knowledge: evidence from perception-production transfer of birth-language memory. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4:160660
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Christoffels IK, De Groot AM, Kroll JF. 2006. Memory and language skills in simultaneous interpreters: the role of expertise and language proficiency. J. Mem. Lang. 54:3324–45
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Christoffels IK, Firk C, Schiller NO. 2007. Bilingual language control: an event-related brain potential study. Brain Res 1147:192–208
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Cortés S, Lleó C, Benet A. 2009. Gradient merging of vowels in Barcelona Catalan under the influence of Spanish. Convergence and Divergence in Language Contact Situations K Braunmuller, J House 185–204. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Costa A, Caramazza A, Sebastian-Galles N. 2000. The cognate facilitation effect: implications for models of lexical access. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 26:51283–96
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Cutler A, Mehler J, Norris D, Seguí J. 1989. Limits on bilingualism. Nature 340:229–30
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Cutler A, Mehler J, Norris D, Seguí J. 1992. The monolingual nature of speech segmentation by bilinguals. Cogn. Psychol. 24:381–410
    [Google Scholar]
  49. De Groot AM, Borgwaldt S, Bos M, Van den Eijnden E. 2002. Lexical decision and word naming in bilinguals: language effects and task effects. J. Mem. Lang. 47:191–124
    [Google Scholar]
  50. De Houwer A. 2009. Bilingual First Language Acquisition Clevedon, UK: Multiling. Matters
  51. DeKeyser RM. 2000. The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studi. Sec. Lang. Acquis. 22:4499–533
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Dunn AL, Fox Tree JE. 2009. A quick, gradient Bilingual Dominance Scale. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 12:273–89
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Flege JE. 1987. The production of ‘new’ and ‘similar’ phones in a foreign language: evidence for the effect of equivalence classification. J. Phonetics 15:47–65
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Flege JE. 1991. Age of learning affects the authenticity of voice-onset time (VOT) in stop consonants produced in a second language. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 89:1395–411
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Flege JE. 1995. Second language speech learning: theory, findings and problems. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-Language Research W Strange 233–77. Timonium, MD: York Press
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Flege JE. 1999. Age of learning and second language speech. Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis D Birdsong 111–42. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Flege JE. 2007. Language contact in bilingualism: phonetic system interactions. Laboratory Phonology 9 J Cole, JI Hualde 353–82. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Flege JE, Bohn O-S. 2021. The revised Speech Learning Model. Second Language Speech Learning, Theoretical and Empirical Progress R Wayland 3–83. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Flege JE, Eefting W. 1987. Production and perception of English stops by native Spanish speakers. J. Phonetics 15:167–83
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Flege JE, MacKay IRA, Meador D. 1999. Native Italian speakers’ perception and production of English vowels. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106:2973–87
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Flege JE, MacKay IRA, Piske T. 2002. Assessing bilingual dominance. Appl. Psycholinguist. 23:4567–98
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Flege JE, Munro MJ. 1994. The word unit in second language speech production and perception. Stud. Sec. Lang. Acquis. 16:4381–411
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Flege JE, Schirru C, MacKay IRA. 2003. Interaction between the native and second language phonetic subsystems. Speech Commun. 40:4467–91
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Fricke M, Kroll JF, Dussias PE. 2016. Phonetic variation in bilingual speech: a lens for studying the production-comprehension link. J. Mem. Lang. 89:110–37
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Goldrick M, Runnqvist E, Costa A. 2014. Language switching makes pronunciation less nativelike. Psychol. Sci. 25:41031–36
    [Google Scholar]
  66. González López V. 2012. Spanish and English word-initial voiceless stop production in code-switched versus monolingual structures. Sec. Lang. Res. 28:2243–63
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Green DW. 2011. Language control in different contexts: the behavioral ecology of bilingual speakers. Front. Psychol. 2:103
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Green DW, Wei L. 2014. A control process model of code-switching. Lang. Cogn. Neurosci. 29:499–511
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Grosjean F. 1998. Studying bilinguals: methodological and conceptual issues. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 1:2131–49
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Grosjean F. 2001. The bilingual's language modes. One Mind, Two Languages: Bilingual Language Processing J Nicol 1–22. Oxford, UK: Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Guion SG. 2003. The vowel systems of Quichua-Spanish bilinguals. Phonetica 60:298–128
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Guion SG. 2005. Knowledge of English word stress patterns in early and late Korean-English bilinguals. Stud. Sec. Lang. Acquis. 27:4503–33
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Guion SG, Harada T, Clark JJ. 2004. Early and late Spanish-English bilinguals' acquisition of English word stress patterns. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 7:3207–26
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Henriksen N, Coetzee AW, García-Amaya L, Fischer M. 2021. Exploring language dominance through code-switching: intervocalic voiced stop lenition in Afrikaans-Spanish bilinguals. Phonetica 78:3201–40
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Hyltenstam K, Bylund E, Abrahamsson N, Park HS. 2009. Dominant-language replacement: the case of international adoptees. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 12:121–40
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Jacobs A, Fricke M, Kroll JF. 2016. Cross-language activation begins during speech planning and extends into second language speech. Lang. Learn. 66:2324–53
    [Google Scholar]
  77. James MA. 2012. Cross-linguistic influence and transfer of learning. Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning NM Seel 858–61. Boston, MA: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Jenkins JJ, Strange W, Polka L. 1995. Not everyone can tell a “rock” from a “lock”: assessing individual differences in speech perception. Assessing Individual Differences in Human Behavior: New Concepts, Methods, and Findings DJ Lubinski, RV Dawis 297–325. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Johnson JS, Newport EL. 1989. Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cogn. Psychol. 21:160–99
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Kehoe MM, Lleó C, Rakow M. 2004. Voice onset time in bilingual German-Spanish children. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 7:171–88
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Kim JY, Repiso-Puigdelliura G. 2020. Deconstructing heritage language dominance: effects of proficiency, use, and input on heritage speakers’ production of the Spanish alveolar tap. Phonetica 77:155–80
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Knightly LM, Jun SA, Oh JS, Au TK-F. 2003. Production benefits of childhood overhearing. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 114:1465–74
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Krashen SD. 1973. Lateralization, language learning, and the critical period: some new evidence. Lang. Learn. 23:163–74
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Kroll JF, Bobb SC, Hoshino N. 2014. Two languages in mind: bilingualism as a tool to investigate language, cognition, and the brain. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 23:3159–63
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Kuhl P. 2000. A new view of language acquisition. PNAS 97:2211850–57
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Kuhl P, Rivera-Gaxiola M. 2008. Neural substrates of language acquisition. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 31:511–34
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Lemhöfer K, Dijkstra T, Michel M. 2004. Three languages, one ECHO: cognate effects in trilingual word recognition. Lang. Cogn. Process. 19:5585–611
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Lenneberg E. 1967. Biological Foundations of Language New York: Wiley
  89. Lim VPC, Rickard Liow SJ, Lincoln M, Chan YK, Onslow M. 2008. Determining language dominance in English-Mandarin bilinguals: development of a self-report classification tool for clinical use. Appl. Psycholinguist. 29:389–412
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Long M. 1990. Maturational constraints on language development. Stud. Sec. Lang. Acquis. 12:251–85
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Mack M. 1989. Consonant and vowel perception and production: early English-French bilinguals and English monolinguals. Percept. Psychophys. 46:187–200
    [Google Scholar]
  92. MacLeod A, Stoel-Gammon C. 2005. Are bilinguals different? What VOT tells us about simultaneous bilinguals. J. Multiling. Commun. Disord. 3:2118–27
    [Google Scholar]
  93. MacLeod A, Stoel-Gammon C. 2009. The use of voice onset time by early bilinguals to distinguish homorganic stops in Canadian English and Canadian French. Appl. Psycholinguist. 30:153–77
    [Google Scholar]
  94. MacLeod A, Stoel-Gammon C. 2010. What is the impact of age of second language acquisition on the production of consonants and vowels among childhood bilinguals?. Int. J. Biling. 14:4400–21
    [Google Scholar]
  95. MacLeod A, Stoel-Gammon C, Wassink AB. 2009. Production of high vowels in Canadian English and Canadian French: a comparison of early bilingual and monolingual speakers. J. Phonetics 37:4374–87
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Marian V, Blumenfeld H, Kaushanskaya M. 2007. The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 50:4940–67
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Maurer D, Werker JF. 2013. Perceptual narrowing during infancy: a comparison of language and faces. Dev. Psychol. 56:154–78
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Mayr R, López-Bueno L, Fernández MV, Lourido GT. 2019. The role of early experience and continued language use in bilingual speech production: a study of Galician and Spanish mid vowels by Galician-Spanish bilinguals. J. Phonetics 72:1–16
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Mayr R, Morris J, Mennen I, Williams D. 2017. Disentangling the effects of long-term language contact and individual bilingualism: the case of monophthongs in Welsh and English. Int. J. Biling. 21:3245–67
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Meisel JM. 2001. The simultaneous acquisition of two first languages: early differentiation and subsequent development of grammars. Trends in Bilingual Acquisition J Cenoz, F Genesee 11–42. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Meisel JM. 2009. Second language acquisition in early childhood. Z. Sprachwiss. 28:5–34
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Montrul S. 2008. Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism: Re-examining the Age Factor Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  103. Montrul S. 2023. Heritage languages: language acquired, language lost, language regained. Annu. Rev. Linguist. 9:399–418
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Mora JC, Nadeu M. 2012. L2 effects on the perception and production of a native vowel contrast in early bilinguals. Int. J. Biling. 16:4484–500
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Morris J. 2014. The influence of social factors on minority language engagement amongst young people: an investigation of Welsh-English bilinguals in North Wales. Int. J. Sociol. Lang. 230:65–89
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Mulík S, Amengual M, Avecilla-Ramírez G, Carrasco-Ortíz H. 2023. The vowel system of Santiago Mexquititlán Otomi (Hñäñho). J. Int. Phonetic Assoc. 53:2383–403
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Mulík S, Amengual M, Maldonado R, Carrasco-Ortíz H. 2021. Hablantes de herencia: ¿una noción aplicable para los indígenas de México?. Estud. Lingüíst. Apl. 73:7–37
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Muñoz C, Singleton D. 2011. A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Lang. Teach. 44:1–35
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Myers-Scotton C. 1993. Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  110. Oh JS, Jun SA, Knightly LM, Au TK-F. 2003. Holding on to childhood language memory. Cognition 86:3B53–64
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Olson DJ. 2013. Bilingual language switching and selection at the phonetic level: asymmetrical transfer in VOT production. J. Phonetics 41:6407–20
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Olson DJ. 2016. The role of code-switching and language context in bilingual phonetic transfer. J. Int. Phonetic Assoc. 46:3263–85
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Olson DJ. 2017. Bilingual language switching costs in auditory comprehension. Lang. Cogn. Neurosci. 34:1494–513
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Olson DJ. 2019. Phonological processes across word and language boundaries: evidence from code-switching. J. Phonetics 77:100937
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Osborne DM. 2021. Perception of Portuguese mid vowels by heritage speakers of Brazilian Portuguese. Herit. Lang. J. 18:11–32
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Oyama S. 1976. A sensitive period for the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system. J. Psycholinguist. Res. 5:261–83
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Pallier C, Bosch L, Sebastián-Gallés N. 1997. A limit on behavioural plasticity in speech perception. Cognition 64:B9–17
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Pallier C, Dehaene S, Poline J-B, LeBihan D, Argenti A-M, Dupoux E, Mehler J. 2003. Brain imaging of language plasticity in adopted adults: Can a second language replace the first?. Cereb. Cortex 13:155–61
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Patkowski M. 1990. Age and accent in a second language: a reply to James Emil Flege. Appl. Psycholinguist. 11:73–89
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Piccinini P, Arvaniti A. 2015. Voice onset time in Spanish-English spontaneous code-switching. J. Phonetics 52:121–37
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Pierce LJ, Chen J-K, Delcenserie A, Genesee F, Klein D. 2015. Past experience shapes ongoing neural patterns for language. Nat. Commun. 6:10073
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Piske T, Flege JE, MacKay IRA, Meador D. 2002. The production of English vowels by fluent early and late Italian-English bilinguals. Phonetica 59:149–71
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Piske T, MacKay IRA, Flege JE. 2001. Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: a review. J. Phonetics 29:2191–215
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Polka L, Werker JF. 1994. Developmental changes in perception of nonnative vowel contrasts. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 20:421–35
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Ramírez M, Simonet M. 2018. Language dominance and the perception of the Majorcan Catalan /ʎ/-/ʒ/ contrast: asymmetrical phonological representations. Int. J. Biling. 22:6638–52
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Sancier ML, Fowler CA. 1997. Gestural drift in a bilingual speaker of Brazilian Portuguese and English. J. Phonetics 25:4421–36
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Schwartz AI, Kroll JF, Diaz M. 2007. Reading words in Spanish and English: mapping orthography to phonology in two languages. Lang. Cogn. Process. 22:1106–29
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Scovel T. 1988. A Time to Speak: A Psycholinguistic Inquiry into the Critical Period for Human Speech Cambridge, MA: Newbury House
  129. Sebastián-Gallés N, Bosch L. 2002. The building of phonotactic knowledge in bilinguals: the role of early exposure. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 28:974–89
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Sebastián-Gallés N, Echeverría S, Bosch L. 2005. The influence of initial exposure on lexical representation: comparing early and simultaneous bilinguals. J. Mem. Lang. 52:2240–55
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Sebastián-Gallés N, Soto-Faraco S. 1999. Online processing of native and non-native phonemic contrasts in early bilinguals. Cognition 72:2111–23
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Simonet M. 2010. Dark and clear laterals in Catalan and Spanish: interaction of phonetic categories in early bilinguals. J. Phonetics 38:4663–78
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Simonet M. 2011. Production of a Catalan-specific vowel contrast by early Spanish-Catalan bilinguals. Phonetica 68:1–288–110
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Simonet M. 2014. Phonetic consequences of dynamic cross-linguistic interference in proficient bilinguals. J. Phonetics 43:26–37
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Simonet M, Amengual M. 2020. Increased language co-activation leads to enhanced cross-linguistic phonetic convergence. Int. J. Biling. 24:2208–21
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Singh L, Liederman J, Mierzejewski R, Barnes J. 2011. Rapid reacquisition of native phoneme contrasts after disuse: You do not always lose what you do not use. Dev. Sci. 14:5949–59
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Stölten K, Abrahamsson N, Hyltenstam K. 2014. Effects of age of learning on voice onset time: categorical perception of Swedish stops by near-native L2 speakers. . Lang. Speech 57:4425–50
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Stölten K, Abrahamsson N, Hyltenstam K. 2015. Effects of age and speaking rate on voice onset time. The production of voiceless stops by near-native L2 speakers. Stud. Sec. Lang. Acquis. 37:71–100
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Sundara M, Polka L. 2008. Discrimination of coronal stops by bilingual adults: the timing and nature of language interaction. Cognition 106:1234–58
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Tomé Lourido G, Evans BG. 2019. The effects of language dominance switch in bilinguals: Galician new speakers' speech production and perception. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 22:3637–54
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Tremblay MC, Sabourin L. 2012. Comparing behavioral discrimination and learning abilities in monolinguals, bilinguals and multilinguals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 132:3465–74
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Tsui RK-Y, Tong X, Chan CSK. 2019. Impact of language dominance on phonetic transfer in Cantonese-English bilingual language switching. Appl. Psycholinguist. 40:129–58
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Van Hell JG. 2023. Code-switching. Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Psycholinguistics A Godfroid, H Hopp 255–67. London: Taylor & Francis
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Van Leussen JW, Escudero P. 2015. Learning to perceive and recognize a second language: the L2LP model revised. Front. Psychol. 6:1000
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Ventureyra V, Pallier C, Yoo H. 2004. The loss of first language phonetic perception in adopted Koreans. J. Neurolinguistics 17:79–91
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Weber-Fox CM, Neville HJ. 1996. Maturational constraints on functional specializations for language processing: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilingual speakers. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 8:3231–56
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Werker JF, Tees RC. 1984. Cross-language speech perception: evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behav. Dev. 7:49–63
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Werker JF, Tees RC. 1992. The organization and reorganization of human speech perception. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 15:377–402
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Yeni-Komshian G, Flege JE, Liu S. 2000. Pronunciation proficiency in the first and second languages of Korean-English bilinguals. Biling. Lang. Cogn. 3:131–50
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-031522-102542
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error