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- Volume 9, 2023
Annual Review of Linguistics - Volume 9, 2023
Volume 9, 2023
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Constructed Languages
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 419–437More LessLinguistic research focuses primarily on the thousands of naturally occurring languages, but there are also languages that have been consciously created by individuals. There are four main types of these constructed languages. First, so-called philosophical languages were created in the seventeenth century as a way to better capture the reality of the world. Second, many international auxiliary languages were constructed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a way to solve practical problems of international communication. Third, many languages have been created in recent decades for the purposes of fiction (e.g., novels, film, television), especially in the realms of science fiction and fantasy, or simply as an enjoyable hobby. Fourth, it is now common to construct languages for use in psycholinguistic experiments. Each of these types of constructed languages presents interesting research questions and deserves increased attention from linguists.
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Recent Advances in Chinese Developmental Dyslexia
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 439–461More LessChinese developmental dyslexia (DD) research provides important insights into the language-universal and language-specific mechanisms underlying dyslexia. In this article, we review recent advances in Chinese DD. Converging behavioral evidence suggests that, while phonological and rapid automatized naming deficits are language universal, orthographic and morphological deficits are specific to the linguistic properties of Chinese. At the neural level, hypoactivation in the left superior temporal/inferior frontal regions in dyslexic children across Chinese and alphabetic languages may indicate a shared phonological processing deficit, whereas hyperactivation in the right inferior occipital/middle temporal regions and atypical activation in the left frontal areas in Chinese dyslexic children may indicate a language-specific compensatory strategy for impaired visual-spatial analysis and a morphological deficit in Chinese DD, respectively. The findings call for further theoretical endeavors to understand the language-universal and Chinese-specific neurobiological mechanisms underlying dyslexia and to design more effective and efficient intervention programs.
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Compositionality in Computational Linguistics
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 463–481More LessNeural models greatly outperform grammar-based models across many tasks in modern computational linguistics. This raises the question of whether linguistic principles, such as the Principle of Compositionality, still have value as modeling tools. We review the recent literature and find that while an overly strict interpretation of compositionality makes it hard to achieve broad coverage in semantic parsing tasks, compositionality is still necessary for a model to learn the correct linguistic generalizations from limited data. Reconciling both of these qualities requires the careful exploration of a novel design space; we also review some recent results that may help in this exploration.
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Postcolonial Language Policy and Planning and the Limits of the Notion of the Modern State
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 483–496More LessIn this review, we discuss the limits of the concept of the modern nation-state to explore language issues in postcolonial contexts, as in Africa. We argue in favor of a revision of the history of the field of language policy and planning (LPP) and sociolinguistics, paying attention to how the colonial issue has been erased and downplayed. We first explore the colonial history of LPP and how this field contributed to frame African multilingualisms as problems to be solved. Second, we briefly discuss how the contemporary understanding of citizenship in Africa is entangled with the colonial history of a particular version of the state in Africa; we focus on Sudan as an example. We problematize the construct of “developing nation” inscribed in the methodological nationalism that characterizes the early LPP framework, which reverberates in contemporary public policies. By doing so, we advocate for a perspective of language that is historically and locally embedded, following a politics that recognizes the importance of Southern epistemologies to language studies.
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Serialism and Opacity in Phonological Theory
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 497–517More LessOpacity is a natural language phenomenon where a phonological process is rendered non-surface-true by virtue of its interaction with other processes. Phonologists have long been fascinated with opaque generalizations both from a typological standpoint (What kinds of non-surface-true generalizations are found?) and a theoretical one (Which formal tools permit an analysis of opacity?). This review aims to (a) discuss the breadth of non-surface-true generalizations in light of phonologists’ (often implicit) working definitions of opacity and (b) address opacity as a flashpoint in one of the larger debates in generative phonology, between the rule-based serial approach of Chomsky & Halle's Sound Pattern of English and constraint-based parallel Optimality Theory. A conclusion offered here is that the well-known problems Optimality Theory faces with some kinds of opacity are due not to its lack of serialism but to the fact that such processes are input-motivated rather than output-motivated.
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The Rational Speech Act Framework
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 519–540More LessThe past decade has seen the rapid development of a new approach to pragmatics that attempts to integrate insights from formal and experimental semantics and pragmatics, psycholinguistics, and computational cognitive science in the study of meaning: probabilistic pragmatics. The most influential probabilistic approach to pragmatics is the Rational Speech Act (RSA) framework. In this review, I demonstrate the basic mechanics and commitments of RSA as well as some of its standard extensions, highlighting the key features that have led to its success in accounting for a wide variety of pragmatic phenomena. Fundamentally, it treats language as probabilistic, informativeness as gradient, alternatives as context-dependent, and subjective prior beliefs (world knowledge) as a crucial facet of interpretation. It also provides an integrated account of the link between production and interpretation. I highlight key challenges for RSA, which include scalability, the treatment of the boundedness of cognition, and the incremental and compositional nature of language.
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Assessing Second Language Speaking Proficiency
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 541–560More LessIn today's global economy, most people all over the world need to speak a second language (L2) for study, work, or social purposes. Assessment of speaking, either in the classroom or as an external exam, is therefore an important task. However, because of its fleeting nature, the assessment of speaking proficiency is difficult. For valid assessment, a speaking test must measure speaking proficiency without construct-irrelevant variance, for instance, due to tasks, raters, and interlocutors. This article begins by bringing together insights from different disciplines to develop a multi-componential construct of speaking proficiency, which includes linguistic and strategic competencies. Because speaking usually takes place in conversation, the ability to take part in interaction, including rapid prediction, is described as part of the speaking construct. Next, the factors that need to be controlled when making a speaking assessment are discussed. Finally, challenges and ideas for future research are briefly described.
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Computational Models of Anaphora
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 561–587More LessInterpreting anaphoric references is a fundamental aspect of our language competence that has long attracted the attention of computational linguists. The appearance of ever-larger anaphorically annotated data sets covering more and more anaphoric phenomena in ever-greater detail has spurred the development of increasingly more sophisticated computational models; as a result, the most recent state-of-the-art neural models are able to achieve impressive performance by leveraging linguistic, lexical, discourse, and encyclopedic information. This article provides a thorough survey of anaphora resolution (coreference) throughout this development, reviewing the available data sets and covering both the preneural history of the field and—in more detail—current neural models, including research on less-studied aspects of anaphoric interpretation such as bridging reference resolution and discourse deixis interpretation.
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Evaluating “Meaningful Differences” in Learning and Communication Across SES Backgrounds
Vol. 9 (2023), pp. 589–608More LessSocioeconomic status (SES) differences in language development are ubiquitous, but existing research has yet to wrestle with how language gaps reflect (a) differences in relevant concepts for communication, (b) comprehension strategies to access meanings, and (c) production practices that express social identity. In child-directed input, parents use verbs to describe similar concepts across SES, and the largest gaps emerge when frequent meanings are being conveyed. During comprehension, children acquire infrequent aspects of grammar across SES but differ in context-specific strategies for interpreting likely meanings. In production, children are sensitive to sociolinguistic implications and adopt context-specific strategies to signal social identity. This suggests that language is a flexible medium for communicating thoughts and that SES effects signal latent differences in meanings and identities across social classes. Whether language gaps contribute to achievement gaps may depend on the extent to which learning and communication draw on these meanings and value these identities.
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