1932

Abstract

The advent of the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century increased the volume and variety of manufactured goods and enriched the quality of life for society as a whole. However, industrialization was also accompanied by new manufacturing and complex processes that brought about the use of hazardous chemicals and difficult-to-control operating conditions. Moreover, human-process-equipment interaction plus on-the-job learning resulted in further undesirable outcomes and associated consequences. These problems gave rise to many catastrophic process safety incidents that resulted in thousands of fatalities and injuries, losses of property, and environmental damages. These events led eventually to the necessity for a gradual development of a new multidisciplinary field, referred to as process safety. From its inception in the early 1970s to the current state of the art, process safety has come to represent a wide array of issues, including safety culture, process safety management systems, process safety engineering, loss prevention, risk assessment, risk management, and inherently safer technology. Governments and academic/research organizations have kept pace with regulatory programs and research initiatives, respectively. Understanding how major incidents impact regulations and contribute to industrial and academic technology development provides a firm foundation to address new challenges, and to continue applying science and engineering to develop and implement programs to keep hazardous materials within containment. Here the most significant incidents in terms of their impact on regulations and the overall development of the field of process safety are described.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-080615-033640
2016-06-07
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/chembioeng/7/1/annurev-chembioeng-080615-033640.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-080615-033640&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Mannan MS, West HH, Krishna K, Aldeeb AA, Keren N. 1.  et al. 2005. The legacy of Bhopal: the impact over the last 20 years and future direction. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 18:4–6218–24 [Google Scholar]
  2. Hopkins A. 2.  2008. Failure to Learn: The BP Texas City Refinery Disaster North Ryde, Aust: CCH Aust.
  3. Mannan MS, Chowdhury AY, Reyes-Valdes OJ. 3.  2012. A portrait of process safety: from its start to present day. Hydrocarb. Process. 91:755–62 [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. Dep. Employ 1975. The Flixborough Disaster: Report of the Court of Inquiry. London: Her Majesty's Station. Off.
  5. Hay AM. 5.  1977. Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin release at Séveso. Disasters 4:1289–308 [Google Scholar]
  6. Ale BJM. 6.  2005. Tolerable or acceptable: a comparison of risk regulation in the United Kingdom and in the Netherlands. Risk Anal. 25:2231–41 [Google Scholar]
  7. Kahn ME. 7.  2007. Environmental disasters as risk regulation catalysts? The role of Bhopal, Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez, Love Canal, and Three Mile Island in shaping U.S. environmental law. J. Risk Uncertain. 35:117–43 [Google Scholar]
  8. Mannan MS. 8.  2005. Lees' Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Amsterdam: Elsevier, 3rd ed..
  9. 9. US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board 2007. Investigation report: refinery explosion and fire, BP Texas City, Texas, March 23, 2005. CSB Rep. No. 2005-04-I-TX, US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board, Washington, DC
  10. Kaszniak M, Holmstrom D. 10.  2008. Trailer siting issues: BP Texas City. J. Hazard. Mater. 159:1105–11 [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board 2009. Investigation report: T2 Laboratories, Inc., runaway reaction. CSB Rep. No. 2008-3-I-FL, US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board, Washington, DC
  12. 12. US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board 2014. Investigation report: explosion and fire at the Macondo Well. CSB Rep. No. 2010-10-I-OS, US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board, Washington, DC
  13. 13. Environ. Public Works Comm 2013. Oversight of Federal Risk Management and Emergency Planning Programs to Prevent and Address Chemical Threats, Including the Events Leading Up to the Explosions in West, TX and Geismar, LA. Washington, DC: US Senate
  14. Crowl DA. 14.  2013. My unexpected journey into process safety Presented at AIChE SAChE Faculty Workshop, Richmond, CA
  15. Theis AE. 15.  2014. Case study: T2 Laboratories explosion. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 30:296–300 [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. Mary Kay O'Connor Process Saf. Cent Strategic Research Plans College Station, TX: Mary Kay O'Connor Process Saf. Cent. Retrieved Nov. 17, 2015 http://pscfiles.tamu.edu/research/strategic-research-plan.pdf
  17. Saraf SR, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 17.  2003. Prediction of reactive hazards based on molecular structure. J. Hazard. Mater. 98:115–29 [Google Scholar]
  18. Saraf SR, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 18.  2003. Application of transition state theory for thermal stability prediction. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 42:71341–46 [Google Scholar]
  19. Cisneros LO, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 19.  2001. Adiabatic calorimetric decomposition studies of 50 wt.% hydroxylamine/water. J. Hazard. Mater. 82:113–24 [Google Scholar]
  20. Adamopoulou T, Papadaki MI, Kounalakis M, Vazquez-Carreto V, Pineda-Solano A. 20.  et al. 2013. Thermal decomposition of hydroxylamine: isoperibolic calorimetric measurements at different conditions. J. Hazard. Mater. 254:382–89 [Google Scholar]
  21. Han Z, Sachdeva S, Papadaki MI, Mannan MS. 21.  2015. Ammonium nitrate thermal decomposition with additives. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 35:307–15 [Google Scholar]
  22. Véchot LN, Bigot J, Tresta D, Kazmierczak M, Vicot P. 22.  2008. Runaway reaction of non-tempered chemical systems: development of a similarity vent-sizing tool at laboratory scale. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 21:4359–66 [Google Scholar]
  23. Aldeeb AA, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 23.  2003. New method estimates the parameters for evaluating process reactivity hazards. Oil Gas J. 101:2466–70 [Google Scholar]
  24. Vidal M, Rogers WJ, Holste JC, Mannan MS. 24.  2004. A review of estimation methods for flash points and flammability limits. Process Saf. Prog. 23:147–55 [Google Scholar]
  25. Le H, Nayak S, Mannan MS. 25.  2012. Upper flammability limits of hydrogen and light hydrocarbons in air at subatmospheric pressures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51:279396–402 [Google Scholar]
  26. Jiang J, Liu Y, Mashuga CV, Mannan MS. 26.  2015. Validation of a new formula for predicting the lower flammability limit of hybrid mixtures. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 35:52–58 [Google Scholar]
  27. Lian P, Mejia AF, Cheng Z, Mannan MS. 27.  2010. Flammability of heat transfer fluid aerosols produced by electrospray measured by laser diffraction analysis. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 23:2337–45 [Google Scholar]
  28. Zhao F, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 28.  2009. Experimental measurement and numerical analysis of binary hydrocarbon mixture flammability limits. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 87:294–104 [Google Scholar]
  29. Crowl DA, Louvar JF. 29.  2001. Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications New York: Pearson Educ.
  30. Patel SJ, Ng D, Mannan MS. 30.  2009. QSPR flash point prediction of solvents using topological indices for application in computer aided molecular design. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48:157378–87 [Google Scholar]
  31. Vidal M, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 31.  2006. Prediction of minimum flash point behaviour for binary mixtures. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 84:11–9 [Google Scholar]
  32. Reyes OJ, Patel SJ, Mannan MS. 32.  2011. Quantitative structure property relationship studies for predicting dust explosibility characteristics (Kst, Pmax) of organic chemical dusts. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 50:42373–79 [Google Scholar]
  33. Gentile M, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 33.  2003. Development of a fuzzy logic-based inherent safety index. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 81:6444–56 [Google Scholar]
  34. Overton T, King GM. 34.  2006. Inherently safer technology: an evolutionary approach. Process Saf. Prog. 25:2116–19 [Google Scholar]
  35. El-Halwagi AM, Rosas C, Ponce-Ortega JM, Jiménez-Gutiérrez A, Mannan MS, El-Halwagi MM. 35.  2013. Multiobjective optimization of biorefineries with economic and safety objectives. AIChE J. 59:72427–34 [Google Scholar]
  36. Olive C, O'Connor TM, Mannan MS. 36.  2006. Relationship of safety culture and process safety. J. Hazard. Mater. 130:1133–40 [Google Scholar]
  37. Cormier BR, Qi R, Yun G, Zhang Y, Mannan MS. 37.  2009. Application of computational fluid dynamics for LNG vapor dispersion modeling: a study of key parameters. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 22:3332–52 [Google Scholar]
  38. Osorio CH, Vissotski AJ, Petersen EL, Mannan MS. 38.  2013. Effect of CF3Br on C1-C3 ignition and laminar flame speed: numerical and experimental evaluation. Combust. Flame 160:61044–59 [Google Scholar]
  39. Quintero FA, Patel SJ, Muñoz F, Mannan MS. 39.  2012. Review of existing QSAR/QSPR models developed for properties used in hazardous chemicals classification system. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51:4916101–15 [Google Scholar]
  40. Benavides-Serrano AJ, Legg SW, Vázquez-Román R, Mannan MS, Laird CD. 40.  2013. A stochastic programming approach for the optimal placement of gas detectors: unavailability and voting strategies. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53:135355–65 [Google Scholar]
  41. Anand S, Keren N, Tretter MJ, Wang Y, O'Connor TM, Mannan MS. 41.  2006. Harnessing data mining to explore incident databases. J. Hazard. Mater. 130:133–41 [Google Scholar]
  42. Barua S. 42.  2012. Dynamic operational risk assessment with Bayesian network MS Thesis, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX
  43. Markowski AS, Mannan MS, Bigoszewska A. 43.  2009. Fuzzy logic for process safety analysis. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 22:6695–702 [Google Scholar]
  44. Deacon T, Amyotte PR, Khan FI. 44.  2010. Human error risk analysis in offshore emergencies. Saf. Sci. 48:6803–18 [Google Scholar]
  45. Ruckart PZ, Burgess PA. 45.  2007. Human error and time of occurrence in hazardous material events in mining and manufacturing. J. Hazard. Mater. 142:3747–53 [Google Scholar]
  46. Dinh LTT, Pasman HJ, Gao X, Mannan MS. 46.  2012. Resilience engineering of industrial processes: principles and contributing factors. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 25:2233–41 [Google Scholar]
  47. Baker JA III, Leveson N, Bowman FL, Priest S, Erwin G. 47.  et al. 2007. Report of the BP U.S. Refineries Independent Safety Review Panel. Houston: BP
  48. 48. Cent. Chem. Process Saf 2010. Guidelines For Process Safety Metrics Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
  49. 49. Am. Pet. Inst 2010. API 754: Process Safety Performance Indicators for the Refining and Petrochemical Industries. Washington, DC: Am. Pet. Inst.
  50. 50. UK Health Saf. Exec 2006. Developing Process Safety Indicators: A Step-by-Step Guide for Chemical and Major Hazard Industries. London: UK Health Saf. Exec.
  51. 51. Int. Assoc. Oil Gas Prod 2011. Process safety: recommended practice on key performance indicators. Rep. No. 456, Int. Assoc. Oil Gas Prod., London
  52. 52. Pet. Saf. Auth. Nor 2013. Trends in risk level in the petroleum activity. Summary Rep., Nor. Cont. Shelf, Stavanger, Nor.
  53. Hopkins A. 53.  2009. Thinking about process safety indicators. Saf. Sci. 47:4460–65 [Google Scholar]
  54. Barry G, Lehman S. 54.  2012. Using lagging data to develop leading indicators to improve the management of frontline operational risk Presented at SPE/APPEA Int. Conf. Health, Saf., Environ. Oil Gas Explor. Prod., Sept. 11–13, Perth, Aust.
  55. Forest JJ, Kessler K. 55.  2013. Correlating process safety leading indicators with performance. Process Saf. Prog. 32:2185–88 [Google Scholar]
  56. Prem K. 56.  2010. Risk measures constituting a risk metrics which enables improved decision making: Value-at-Risk. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 23:2211–19 [Google Scholar]
  57. Wilkinson P. 57.  2012. Progress on process safety indicators—necessary but not sufficient? Discuss. Pap., US Chem. Saf. Hazard Investig. Board, Noetic Risk Sol., Washington, DC
  58. Mannan MS, Mentzer RA, Rocha-Valadez T, Mims A. 58.  2014. Offshore drilling risks—1. Study: Risk indicators have varying impact on mitigation. Oil Gas J. 2014:64–69 [Google Scholar]
  59. Fewtrell L, Bartram J. 59.  2001. Water Quality: Guidelines, Standards and Health London: World Health Organ., IWA Publ.
  60. 60. Environ. Prot. Agency Off. Res. Dev 2007. Risk communication in action: the tools for message mapping EPA Rep. 625/R-06/012. http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/60000IOS.pdf
  61. Chorus I, Bartram J. 61.  1999. Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water. A Guide to Their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. London: E & FN Spon
  62. Fischhoff B. 62.  1995. Risk perception and communication unplugged: twenty years of process. Risk Anal. 15:2137–45 [Google Scholar]
  63. Ng KL, Hamby DM. 63.  1997. Fundamentals for establishing a risk communication program. Health Phys. 73:3473–82 [Google Scholar]
  64. Rowan KE. 64.  1991. Goals, obstacles, and strategies in risk communication: a problem-solving approach to improving communication about risks. J. Appl. Commun. Res. 19:4300–29 [Google Scholar]
  65. McKechnie S, Davies S. 65.  1999. Consumers and risk. Risk Communication and Public Health P Bennett, K Calman 170–82 Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  66. McCallum DB, Anderson L. 66.  1991. Communicating about pesticides in the water. Communicating Risks to the Public RE Kasperson, PJM Stallen 237–85 Dordrecht, Neth: Kluwer [Google Scholar]
  67. Vedam H, Dash S, Venkatasubramanian V. 67.  1999. An intelligent operator decision support system for abnormal situation management. Comput. Chem. Eng. 23:S577–80 [Google Scholar]
  68. Nimmo I. 68.  1995. Adequately address abnormal operations. Chem. Eng. Prog. 91:9 [Google Scholar]
  69. Carpenter C. 69.  2013. Abnormal-situation management in offshore operations. J. Pet. Technol. 65:12103–5 [Google Scholar]
  70. Zhou Y. 70.  2004. Data driven process monitoring based on neural networks and classification trees PhD Diss., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX
  71. Rajaraman S. 71.  2006. Robust model based fault diagnosis for chemical process systems PhD Diss., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX
  72. Zhou Y, Kazantzis N, West HH, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 72.  2000. Abnormal situation management: a process dynamics approach. Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Mary Kay O'Connor Process Safety Center Symposium—Beyond Regulatory Compliance: Making Safety Second Nature228–30 College Station: Texas A&M Univ.
  73. Noynaert SF, Schubert JJ. 73.  2005. Modeling ultra-deepwater blowouts and dynamic kills and the resulting blowout control best practices recommendations. Proc. SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Feb. 23–25, Amsterdam, Neth. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/92626-MS [Google Scholar]
  74. Song G, Hu Z, Sun K, Ma N, Economides MJ. 74.  et al. 2006. An innovative ultradeepwater subsea blowout preventer (SSBOP) control system using shape memory alloy actuators. Proc. SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Feb. 21–23, Miami, FL. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/99041-MS [Google Scholar]
  75. Handal A. 75.  2013. Safety barrier analysis and hazard identification of blowout using managed pressure drilling compared with conventional drilling. Proc. SPE/IADC Manag. Press. Drill. Underbalanced Oper. Conf. Exhib., April 17–18, San Antonio, TX. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/164564-MS [Google Scholar]
  76. Bang J, Mjaaland S, Solstad A, Hendriks P, Jensen LK. 76.  1994. Acoustic gas kick detection with wellhead sonar. Proc. SPE Annu. Tech. Conf. Exhib., Sept. 25–28, New Orleans, LA. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/28317-MS [Google Scholar]
  77. Santos HM, Catak E, Kinder JI, Sonnemann P. 77.  2007. Kick detection and control in oil-based mud: real well test results using micro-flux control equipment. Proc. SPE/IADC Drill. Conf., Feb. 20–22, Amsterdam. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/105454-MS [Google Scholar]
  78. Karimi-Vajargah A, Miska SZ, Yu M, Ozbayoglu ME, Majidi R. 78.  2013. Feasibility study of applying intelligent drill pipe in early detection of gas influx during conventional drilling. Proc. SPE/IADC Drill. Conf., March 5–7, Amsterdam. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/163445-MS [Google Scholar]
  79. Liu R, Hasan AR, Mannan MS. 79.  2014. Flow rate and total discharge estimations in gas-well blowouts. Proc. SPE Deep. Drill. Complet. Conf., Sept. 10–11, Galveston, TX. Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng doi:10.2118/170274-MS [Google Scholar]
  80. 80. World Comm. Environ. Dev 1987. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Rome: United Nat.
  81. Fenner RA, Ainger CM, Cruicshank HJ, Guthrie PM. 81.  2006. Widening engineering horizons: addressing the complexity of sustainable development. Proc. ICE-Eng. Sustain. 159:4145–54 [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. Healthy Parks Healthy People Int. Congr 2010. The Melbourne Communiqué. Rugby, UK: Inst. Chem. Eng.
  83. 83. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 2013 Policy Statement 418—The Role of the Civil Engineer in Sustainable Development Reston, VA: Am. Soc. Civ. Eng http://www.asce.org/issues-and-advocacy/public-policy/policy-statement-418—the-role-of-the-civil-engineer-in-sustainable-development/
  84. Dodds R. 84.  2005. Engineering for Sustainable Development: Guiding Principles London: R. Acad. Eng.
  85. Allen DT, Shonnard DR. 85.  2012. Sustainability in chemical engineering education: identifying a core body of knowledge. AIChE J. 58:82296–302 [Google Scholar]
  86. Desha CJ, Hargroves K, Smith MH. 86.  2009. Addressing the time lag dilemma in curriculum renewal towards engineering education for sustainable development. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 10:2184–99 [Google Scholar]
  87. Ramani K, Ramanujan D, Bernstein WZ, Zhao F, Sutherland J. 87.  et al. 2010. Integrated sustainable life cycle design: a review. J. Mech. Des. 132:91–15 [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. US Environ. Prot. Agency. 2012. Life Cycle Assessment. Washington, DC: US Environ. Prot. Agency. Retrieved Nov 22, 2015. http://www2.epa.gov/e3/e3-sustainability-tools
  89. Hunkeler D, Rebitzer G. 89.  2005. The future of life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10:5305–8 [Google Scholar]
  90. Singh KS, Murty HR, Gupta SK, Dikshit AK. 90.  2009. An overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. Ecol. Indic. 9:2189–212 [Google Scholar]
  91. Kletz TA. 91.  1991. Inherently safer plants: an update. Plant/Oper. Prog. 10:281–84 [Google Scholar]
  92. Dincer I, Rosen MA. 92.  2012. EXERGY: Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development Amsterdam: Elsevier Sci.
  93. 93. US Environ. Prot. Agency. 2012. Chemical Safety for Sustainability Strategic Research Action Plan 2012–2016. Washington, DC: US Environ. Prot. Agency
  94. Narayanan D, Zhang Y, Mannan MS. 94.  2007. Engineering for sustainable development (ESD) in bio-diesel production. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 85:5349–59 [Google Scholar]
  95. Vázquez-Román R, Lee J-H, Jung S, Mannan MS. 95.  2010. Optimal facility layout under toxic release in process facilities: a stochastic approach. Comput. Chem. Eng. 34:1122–33 [Google Scholar]
  96. Jung S, Ng D, Laird CD, Mannan MS. 96.  2010. A new approach for facility siting using mapping risks on a plant grid area and optimization. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 23:6824–30 [Google Scholar]
  97. López-Molina A, Vázquez-Román R, Mannan MS, Félix-Flores G. 97.  2013. An approach for domino effect reduction based on optimal layouts. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 26:5887–94 [Google Scholar]
  98. Pasman H. 98.  2011. Why research into explosion mechanisms of flammable cloud is still necessary: reducing uncertainty will make risk assessment and decision making stronger. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51:7628–35 [Google Scholar]
  99. Mashuga CV, Crowl DA. 99.  1998. Application of the flammability diagram for evaluation of fire and explosion hazards of flammable vapors. Process Saf. Prog. 17:3176–83 [Google Scholar]
  100. Vidal M, Wong W, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 100.  2006. Evaluation of lower flammability limits of fuel–air–diluent mixtures using calculated adiabatic flame temperatures. J. Hazard. Mater. 130:121–27 [Google Scholar]
  101. Mashuga CV, Crowl DA. 101.  2000. Derivation of Le Chatelier's mixing rule for flammable limits. Process Saf. Prog. 19:2112–17 [Google Scholar]
  102. Puttock JS, Yardley MR, Cresswell TM. 102.  2000. Prediction of vapour cloud explosions using the SCOPE model. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 13:3–5419–31 [Google Scholar]
  103. Lea CJL, Ledin HS. 103.  2002. A Review of the State-of-the-Art in Gas Explosion Modeling London: Health Saf. Exec.
  104. Lee JHS, Moen IO. 104.  1980. The mechanism of transition from deflagration to detonation in vapor cloud explosions. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 6:4359–89 [Google Scholar]
  105. Krishna K, Rogers WJ, Mannan MS. 105.  2003. The use of aerosol formation, flammability, and explosion information for heat-transfer fluid selection. J. Hazard. Mater. 104:1215–26 [Google Scholar]
  106. Lian P, Mejia AF, Cheng Z, Mannan MS. 106.  2010. Flammability of heat transfer fluid aerosols produced by electrospray measured by laser diffraction analysis. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 23:2337–45 [Google Scholar]
  107. Sukmarg P, Krishna K, Rogers WJ, Kihm KD, Mannan MS. 107.  2002. Non-intrusive characterization of heat transfer fluid aerosol sprays released from an orifice. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 15:119–27 [Google Scholar]
  108. Castellanos D, Carreto-Vazquez VH, Mashuga CV, Trotter R, Mejia AF, Mannan MS. 108.  2014. The effect of particle size polydispersity on the explosibility characteristics of aluminum dust. Powder Technol. 254:331–37 [Google Scholar]
  109. Jiang J, Liu Y, Mannan MS. 109.  2014. A correlation of the lower flammability limit for hybrid mixtures. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 32:120–26 [Google Scholar]
  110. Mannan MS, Mentzer RA, Zhang J. 110.  2013. Framework for creating a best-in-class safety culture. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 26:61423–32 [Google Scholar]
  111. Webber DM, Gant SE, Ivings MJ, Jagger SF. 111.  2009. LNG source term models for hazard analysis: a review of the state-of-the-art and an approach to model assessment Final Rep., Fire Prot. Res. Found., Quincy, MA
  112. Dimopoulos GG, Frangopoulos CA. 112.  2008. A dynamic model for liquefied natural gas evaporation during marine transportation. Int. J. Thermodyn. 11:3123–31 [Google Scholar]
  113. Miana M, Hoyo RD, Rodrigálvarez V, Valdés JR, Llorens R. 113.  2010. Calculation models for prediction of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) ageing during ship transportation. Appl. Energy 87:51687–700 [Google Scholar]
  114. Conrado C, Vesovic V. 114.  2000. The influence of chemical composition on vaporization of LNG and LPG on unconfined water surface. Chem. Eng. Sci. 55:204549–62 [Google Scholar]
  115. Valencia-Chavez JA, Reid RC. 115.  1979. The effect of composition on the boiling rates of liquefied natural gas for confined spills on water. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 22:6831–38 [Google Scholar]
  116. Bøe R. 116.  1998. Pool boiling of hydrocarbon mixtures on water. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 41:8–91003–11 [Google Scholar]
  117. Berenson PJ. 117.  1962. Experiments on pool-boiling heat transfer. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 5:10985–99 [Google Scholar]
  118. Burton JC, Sharpe AL, van der Veen RCA, Franco A, Nagel SR. 118.  2012. Geometry of the vapor layer under a Leidenfrost drop. Phys. Rev. Lett. 109:7074301 [Google Scholar]
  119. Liu Y, Olewski T, Vechot L, Gao X, Mannan MS. 119.  2011. Modeling of a cryogenic liquid pool boiling using CFD code Presented at 2011 Mary Kay O'Connor Process Saf. Cent. Int. Sympos., College Station, TX
  120. Ahammad M, Liu Y, Rahmani S, Mannan MS, Olewski T, Vechot LN. 120.  2015. Guidelines for simulating cryogenic film boiling using volume of fluid (VOF) method. Proc. Hazards 25, Edinburgh, UK. Rugby, UK: Inst. Chem. Eng. [Google Scholar]
  121. Vinnem JE, Aven T, Husebø T, Seljelid J, Tveit OJ. 121.  2006. Major hazard risk indicators for monitoring of trends in the Norwegian offshore petroleum sector. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 91:7778–91 [Google Scholar]
  122. Skogdalen JE, Utne IB, Vinnem JE. 122.  2011. Developing safety indicators for preventing offshore oil and gas deepwater drilling blowouts. Saf. Sci. 49:81187–99 [Google Scholar]
  123. Rocha-Valadez T, Hasan AR, Mannan MS, Kabir CS. 123.  2014. Assessing wellbore integrity in sustained-casing-pressure annulus. Proc. SPE Drill. Complet. Soc. Pet. Eng.131–38 Richardson, TX: Soc. Pet. Eng. [Google Scholar]
  124. Falck A, Bain B, Rødsætre LK. 124.  2009. Leak frequency modelling for offshore QRA based on the hydrocarbon release database. Hazard XXI Symp. Ser. 155:638–46 [Google Scholar]
  125. Kalantarnia M, Khan F, Hawboldt K. 125.  2009. Risk assessment and management using accident precursors modeling in offshore process operation. Proc ASME 2009 28th Int. Conf. Ocean, Offshore Arct. Eng., Honolulu, HI. New York: Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. [Google Scholar]
  126. Gran BA, Bye R, Nyheim OM, Okstad EH, Seljelid J. 126.  et al. 2012. Evaluation of the Risk OMT model for maintenance work on major offshore process equipment. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 25:3582–93 [Google Scholar]
  127. Skogdalen JE, Vinnem JE. 127.  2011. Quantitative risk analysis offshore—human and organizational factors. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 96:4468–79 [Google Scholar]
  128. Khan FI, Amyotte PR, DiMattia DG. 128.  2006. HEPI: a new tool for human error probability calculation for offshore operation. Saf. Sci. 44:4313–34 [Google Scholar]
  129. Ren J, Jenkinson I, Wang J, Xu DL, Yang JB. 129.  2008. A methodology to model causal relationships on offshore safety assessment focusing on human and organizational factors. J. Saf. Res. 39:187–100 [Google Scholar]
  130. Gadd S, Keeley D, Balmforth H. 130.  2003. Good practice and pitfalls in risk assessment. Res. Rep. 151, UK Health Saf. Exec., London
  131. Modarres M. 131.  2006. Risk Analysis in Engineering: Techniques, Tools and Trends New York: Taylor & Francis
  132. Altenbach TJ. 132.  1995. A comparison of risk assessment techniques from qualitative to quantitative Presented at ASME Press. Pipeline Conf., July 23–27, Honolulu, HI
  133. 133. Food Agric. Organ 2009. Risk Characterization of Microbiological Hazards in Food. Geneva: World Health Organ.
  134. Rogers WJ, Liu Y-S, Mannan MS. 134.  2004. Experimental and computational methods for process safety research. Proc. 3rd NRIFD Symp. Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan 55–66 Tokyo: Natl. Res. Inst. Fire Disaster [Google Scholar]
  135. Mitchell SM, Mannan MS. 135.  2006. Designing resilient engineered systems. Chem. Eng. Prog. 102:439–45 [Google Scholar]
  136. Jackson S. 136.  2010. Architecting Resilient Systems: Accident Avoidance and Survival and Recovery from Disruptions Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
  137. Hollnagel E. 137.  2011. Prologue: the scope of resilience engineering. Resilience Engineering in Practice E Hollnagel, J Pariès, D Woods, J Wreathall xxxvii–viii Surrey, UK: Ashgate [Google Scholar]
  138. Holt BR, Morari M. 138.  1985. Design of resilient processing plants—VI. The effect of right-half-plane zeros on dynamic resilience. Chem. Eng. Sci. 40:159–74 [Google Scholar]
  139. Øien K, Massaiu S, Tinmannsvik RK, Størseth F. 139.  2010. Development of early warning indicators based on Resilience Engineering Presented at PSAM10, Int. Probab. Saf. Assess. Manag. Conf., June 7–11, Seattle, WA
  140. Gadd S, Collins AM. 140.  2002. Safety culture: a review of the literature Rep. HSL/2002/25, Health Saf. Lab., Sheffield, UK
  141. Glendon AI, McKenna EF. 141.  1995. Human Safety and Risk Management London: Chapman & Hall
  142. James LR, Jones AP. 142.  1974. Organizational climate: a review of theory and research. Psychol. Bull. 81:121096–112 [Google Scholar]
  143. Jones AP, Jones LR. 143.  1979. Psychological climate: dimensions and relationships of individual and aggregated work environment perceptions. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 23:201–50 [Google Scholar]
  144. Glick WH. 144.  1985. Conceptualizing and measuring organizational and psychological climate: pitfalls in multilevel research. Acad. Manag. Rev. 10:3601–16 [Google Scholar]
  145. Ekvall G. 145.  1983. Climate, structure and innovativeness of organizations. Work. Pap., Swed. Counc. Manag. Org. Behav., Stockholm
  146. 146. Columbia Accid. Investig. Board 2003. Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report. Washington, DC: Natl. Aeronaut. Space Admin.
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-080615-033640
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-080615-033640
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error