1932

Abstract

Experimental research on emotional memory reconsolidation interference, or the induction of amnesia for previously established emotional memory, has a long tradition, but the potential of that research for the development of novel interventions to treat psychological disorders has been recognized only recently. Here we provide an overview of basic research and clinical studies on emotional memory reconsolidation interference. We point out specific advantages of interventions based on memory reconsolidation interference over traditional treatment for emotional disorders. We also explain how findings from basic research suggest limitations and challenges to clinical translation that may help to understand why clinical trials have met with mixed success so far and how their success can be increased. In closing, we preview new intervention approaches beyond the induction of amnesia that the phenomenon of memory reconsolidation may afford for alleviating the burden imposed by emotional memories and comment on theoretical controversies regarding the nature of memory reconsolidation.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045209
2017-05-08
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/clinpsy/13/1/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045209.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045209&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Agren T, Engman J, Frick A, Björkstrand J, Larsson EM. et al. 2012. Disruption of reconsolidation erases a fear memory trace in the human amygdala. Science 337:1550–52 [Google Scholar]
  2. Alberini CM. 2011. The role of reconsolidation and the dynamic process of long-term memory formation and storage. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 5:12 [Google Scholar]
  3. Alfei JM, Ferrer Monti RI, Molina VA, Bueno AM, Urcelay GP. 2015. Prediction error and trace dominance determine the fate of fear memories after post-training manipulations. Learn. Mem. 22:385–400 [Google Scholar]
  4. Atsak P, Hauer D, Campolongo P, Schelling G, McGaugh JL, Roozendaal B. 2012. Glucocorticoids interact with the hippocampal endocannabinoid system in impairing retrieval of contextual fear memory. PNAS 109:3504–9 [Google Scholar]
  5. Auber A, Tedesco V, Jones CE, Monfils MH, Chiamulera C. 2013. Post-retrieval extinction as reconsolidation interference: methodological issues or boundary conditions. Psychopharmacology 226:631–47 [Google Scholar]
  6. Baker KD, McNally GP, Richardson R. 2013. Memory retrieval before or after extinction reduces recovery of fear in adolescent rats. Learn. Mem. 20:467–73 [Google Scholar]
  7. Beckers T, Krypotos AM, Boddez Y, Effting M, Kindt M. 2013. What's wrong with fear conditioning. Biol. Psychol. 92:90–96 [Google Scholar]
  8. Boddez Y, Callaerts-Vegh Z, Vervliet B, Baeyens F, D'Hooge R. et al. 2012. Stimulus generalization and return of fear in C57BL/6J mice. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 6:41 [Google Scholar]
  9. Bouton ME. 1988. Context and ambiguity in the extinction of emotional learning: implications for exposure therapy. Behav. Res. Ther. 26:137–49 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bouton ME. 2004. Context and behavioral process in extinction. Learn. Mem. 11:485–94 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bouton ME, Mineka S, Barlow DH. 2001. A modern learning theory perspective on the etiology of panic disorder. Psychol. Rev. 108:4–32 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bos MG, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2012. The effects of noradrenergic blockade on extinction in humans. Biol. Psychol. 89:598–605 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bos MG, Jacobs van Goethem TH, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2014a. Cortisol response mediates the effect of post-reactivation stress exposure on contextualization of emotional memories. Psychoneuroendocrinology 50:72–84 [Google Scholar]
  14. Bos MG, Schuijer J, Lodestijn F, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2014b. Stress enhances reconsolidation of declarative memory. Psychoneuroendocrinology 46:102–13 [Google Scholar]
  15. Bregman N, Nicolas T, Lewis DJ. 1976. Cue-dependent amnesia: permanence and memory return. Physiol. Behav. 17:267–70 [Google Scholar]
  16. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Adil J, Khan S. et al. 2003. Cortisol response to a cognitive stress challenge in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to childhood abuse. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28:733–50 [Google Scholar]
  17. Brewin CR. 2011. The nature and significance of memory disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 7:203–27 [Google Scholar]
  18. Brown TA, Barlow DH. 1995. Long-term outcome in cognitive-behavioral treatment of panic disorder: clinical predictors and alternative strategies for assessment. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 63:754–65 [Google Scholar]
  19. Brunet A, Orr SP, Tremblay J, Robertson K, Nader K, Pitman RK. 2008. Effect of post-retrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 42:503–6The first study to apply pharmacologically induced amnesia for reactivated emotional memories to treatment of emotional disorders. [Google Scholar]
  20. Brunet A, Poundja J, Tremblay J, Bui E, Thomas E. et al. 2011. Trauma reactivation under the influence of propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress symptoms and disorder: 3 open-label trials. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 31:547–50 [Google Scholar]
  21. Brunet A, Thomas É, Saumier D, Ashbaugh AR, Azzoug A. et al. 2014. Trauma reactivation plus propranolol is associated with durably low physiological responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery. Can. J. Psychiatry 59:228–32 [Google Scholar]
  22. Bustos SG, Giachero M, Maldonado H, Molina VA. 2010. Previous stress attenuates the susceptibility to midazolam's disruptive effect on fear memory reconsolidation: influence of pre-reactivation D-cycloserine administration. Neuropsychopharmacology 35:1097–108 [Google Scholar]
  23. Chalkia A, Vanaken L, Fonteyne R, Beckers T. 2016. A light-touch behavioural intervention for inducing amnesia for acquired fear memories Presented at Int. Conf. Mem., 6th, Budapest
  24. Chan WY, Leung HT, Westbrook RF, McNally GP. 2010. Effects of recent exposure to a conditioned stimulus on extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Learn. Mem. 17:512–21 [Google Scholar]
  25. Clem RL, Huganir RL. 2010. Calcium-permeable AMPA receptor dynamics mediate fear memory erasure. Science 330:1108–12 [Google Scholar]
  26. Cordero MI, Venero C, Kruyt ND, Sandi C. 2003. Prior exposure to a single stress session facilitates subsequent contextual fear conditioning in rats: evidence for a role of corticosterone. Horm. Behav. 44:338–45 [Google Scholar]
  27. Costanzi M, Cannas S, Saraulli D, Rossi-Arnaud C, Cestari V. 2011. Extinction after retrieval: effects on the associative and nonassociative components of remote contextual fear memory. Learn. Mem. 18:508–18 [Google Scholar]
  28. De Bundel D, Zussy C, Espallergues J, Gerfen CR, Girault JA, Valjent E. 2016. Dopamine D2 receptors gate generalization of conditioned threat responses through mTORC1 signaling in the extended amygdala. Mol. Psychiatry 21:1545–53 [Google Scholar]
  29. Debiec J, LeDoux JE. 2004. Disruption of reconsolidation but not consolidation of auditory fear conditioning by noradrenergic blockade in the amygdala. Neuroscience 129:267–72 [Google Scholar]
  30. Debiec J, LeDoux JE, Nader K. 2002. Cellular and systems reconsolidation in the hippocampus. Neuron 36:527–38 [Google Scholar]
  31. DeVietti TL, Larson RC. 1971. ECS effects: evidence supporting state-dependent learning in rats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 74:407–15 [Google Scholar]
  32. Díaz-Mataix L, Ruiz Martinez RC, Schafe GE, LeDoux JE, Doyère V. 2013. Detection of a temporal error triggers reconsolidation of amygdala-dependent memories. Curr. Biol. 23:467–72 [Google Scholar]
  33. Duncan CP. 1949. The retroactive effect of electroshock on learning. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 42:32–44 [Google Scholar]
  34. Dymond S, Dunsmoor JE, Vervliet B, Roche B, Hermans D. 2015. Fear generalization in humans: systematic review and implications for anxiety disorder research. Behav. Ther. 46:561–82 [Google Scholar]
  35. Elsey JWB, Kindt M. 2016. Manipulating human memory through reconsolidation: ethical implications of a new therapeutic approach. Am. J. Bioeth. Neurosci. 7:225–36 [Google Scholar]
  36. Elzinga BM, Schmahl CG, Vermetten E, van Dyck R, Bremner JD. 2003. Higher cortisol levels following exposure to traumatic reminders in abuse-related PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:1656–65 [Google Scholar]
  37. Exton-McGuinness MTJ, Lee JLC, Reichelt AC. 2015. Updating memories: the role of prediction errors in memory reconsolidation. Behav. Brain Res. 278:375–84Provides a review of the role of expectancy violation or prediction error in inducing memory destabilization. [Google Scholar]
  38. Flavell CR, Barber DJ, Lee JL. 2011. Behavioural memory reconsolidation of food and fear memories. Nat. Commun. 2:504 [Google Scholar]
  39. Foa EB, McLean CP. 2016. The efficacy of exposure therapy for anxiety-related disorders and its underlying mechanisms: the case of OCD and PTSD. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 12:1–28 [Google Scholar]
  40. Gazarini L, Stern CA, Carobrez AP, Bertoglio LJ. 2013. Enhanced noradrenergic activity potentiates fear memory consolidation and reconsolidation by differentially recruiting α1- and β-adrenergic receptors. Learn. Mem. 20:210–19 [Google Scholar]
  41. Gisquet-Verrier P, Lynch JF, Cutolo P, Toledano D, Ulmen A. et al. 2015. Integration of new information with active memory accounts for retrograde amnesia: a challenge to the consolidation/reconsolidation hypothesis?. J. Neurosci. 35:11623–33 [Google Scholar]
  42. Golkar A, Bellander M, Olsson A, Ohman A. 2012. Are fear memories erasable? Reconsolidation of learned fear with fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant stimuli. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 6:80 [Google Scholar]
  43. Gotlib IH, Joormann J. 2010. Cognition and depression: current status and future directions. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 6:285–312 [Google Scholar]
  44. Hermans D, Craske MG, Mineka S, Lovibond PF. 2006. Extinction in human fear conditioning. Biol. Psychiatry 60:361–68 [Google Scholar]
  45. Hoffman AN, Parga A, Paode PR, Watterson LR, Nikulina EM. et al. 2015. Chronic stress enhanced fear memories are associated with increased amygdala zif268 mRNA expression and are resistant to reconsolidation. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 120:61–68 [Google Scholar]
  46. Hutton-Bedbrook K, McNally GP. 2013. The promises and pitfalls of retrieval-extinction procedures in preventing relapse to drug seeking. Front. Psychiatry 4:14 [Google Scholar]
  47. Ishii D, Matsuzawa D, Matsuda S, Tomizawa H, Sutoh C, Shimizu E. 2012. No erasure effect of retrieval-extinction trial on fear memory in the hippocampus-independent and dependent paradigms. Neurosci. Lett. 523:76–81 [Google Scholar]
  48. Ishii D, Matsuzawa D, Matsuda S, Tomizawa H, Sutoh C, Shimizu E. 2015. An isolated retrieval trial before extinction session does not prevent the return of fear. Behav. Brain Res. 287:139–45 [Google Scholar]
  49. James EL, Bonsall MB, Hoppitt L, Tunbridge EM, Geddes JR. et al. 2015. Computer game play reduces intrusive memories of experimental trauma via reconsolidation-update mechanisms. Psychol. Sci. 26:1201–15 [Google Scholar]
  50. Joëls M, Baram TZ. 2009. The neuro-symphony of stress. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10:459–66 [Google Scholar]
  51. Judge ME, Quartermain D. 1982. Characteristics of retrograde amnesia following reactivation of memory in mice. Physiol. Behav. 28:585–90 [Google Scholar]
  52. Kellner CH, Greenberg RM, Murrough JW, Bryson EO, Briggs MC, Pasculli RM. 2012. ECT in treatment-resistant depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 169:1238–44 [Google Scholar]
  53. Kindt M. 2014. A behavioural neuroscience perspective on the aetiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Behav. Res. Ther. 62:24–36 [Google Scholar]
  54. Kindt M, Soeter M. 2013. Reconsolidation in a human fear conditioning study: a test of extinction as updating mechanism. Biol. Psychol. 92:43–50 [Google Scholar]
  55. Kindt M, Soeter M, Vervliet B. 2009. Beyond extinction: erasing human fear responses and preventing the return of fear. Nat. Neurosci. 12:256–58The first study to experimentally demonstrate pharmacological reconsolidation interference in humans. [Google Scholar]
  56. Kindt M, van Emmerik A. 2016. New avenues for treating emotional memory disorders: towards a reconsolidation intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder. Ther. Adv. Psychopharmacol. 6:283–95 [Google Scholar]
  57. King R, Schaefer A. 2011. The emotional startle effect is disrupted by a concurrent working memory task. Psychophysiology 48:269–72 [Google Scholar]
  58. Köhler CA, Carvalho AF, Alves GS, McIntyre RS, Hyphantis TN, Cammarota M. 2015. Autobiographical memory disturbances in depression: a novel therapeutic target?. Neural. Plast 2015:759139 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kredlow MA, Unger LD, Otto MW. 2016. Harnessing reconsolidation to weaken fear and appetitive memories: a meta-analysis of post-retrieval extinction effects. Psychol. Bull. 142:314–36 [Google Scholar]
  60. Kroes MC, Tendolkar I, van Wingen GA, van Waarde JA, Strange BA, Fernández G. 2014. An electroconvulsive therapy procedure impairs reconsolidation of episodic memories in humans. Nat. Neurosci. 17:204–6 [Google Scholar]
  61. Lang PJ, Davis M, Ohman A. 2000. Fear and anxiety: animal models and human cognitive psychophysiology. J. Affect. Disord. 61:137–59 [Google Scholar]
  62. LeDoux JE. 2003. The emotional brain, fear and the amygdala. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 23:727–38 [Google Scholar]
  63. Lee JLC. 2009. Reconsolidation: maintaining memory relevance. Trends Neurosci 32:413–20 [Google Scholar]
  64. Lonergan M, Saumier D, Tremblay J, Kieffer B, Brown TG, Brunet A. 2016. Reactivating addiction-related memories under propranolol to reduce craving: a pilot randomized controlled trial. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 50:245–49 [Google Scholar]
  65. Mactutus CF, Riccio DC, Ferek JM. 1979. Retrograde amnesia for old (reactivated) memory: some anomalous characteristics. Science 204:1319–20 [Google Scholar]
  66. Markowitz JC, Petkova E, Neria Y, Van Meter PE, Zhao Y. et al. 2015. Is exposure necessary? A randomized clinical trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry 172:430–40 [Google Scholar]
  67. Meir Drexler S, Merz CJ, Hamacher-Dang TC, Marquardt V, Fritsch N. et al. 2014. Effects of postretrieval-extinction learning on return of contextually controlled cued fear. Behav. Neurosci. 128:474–81 [Google Scholar]
  68. Merlo E, Milton AL, Goozée ZY, Theobald DE, Everitt BJ. 2014. Reconsolidation and extinction are dissociable and mutually exclusive processes: behavioral and molecular evidence. J. Neurosci. 34:2422–31 [Google Scholar]
  69. Milton AL, Everitt BJ. 2012. The persistence of maladaptive memory: addiction, drug memories and anti-relapse treatments. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36:1119–39 [Google Scholar]
  70. Misanin JR, Miller RR, Lewis DJ. 1968. Retrograde amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock after reactivation of a consolidated memory trace. Science 160:554–55Demonstrated for the first time that emotional memories can be selectively disrupted after their consolidation. [Google Scholar]
  71. Monfils MH, Cowansage KK, Klann E, LeDoux JE. 2009. Extinction-reconsolidation boundaries: key to persistent attenuation of fear memories. Science 324:951–55 [Google Scholar]
  72. Morris RG, Inglis J, Ainge JA, Olverman HJ, Tulloch J. et al. 2006. Memory reconsolidation: sensitivity of spatial memory to inhibition of protein synthesis in dorsal hippocampus during encoding and retrieval. Neuron 50:479–89 [Google Scholar]
  73. Nader K, Hardt O. 2009. A single standard for memory: the case for reconsolidation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10:224–34 [Google Scholar]
  74. Nader K, Schafe GE, LeDoux JE. 2000. Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature 406:722–26Provided a major impetus to the renewed interest in reconsolidation interference. [Google Scholar]
  75. Otis JM, Werner CT, Mueller D. 2015. Noradrenergic regulation of fear and drug-associated memory reconsolidation. Neuropsychopharmacology 40:793–803 [Google Scholar]
  76. Oyarzún JP, Lopez-Barroso D, Fuentemilla L, Cucurell D, Pedraza C. et al. 2012. Updating fearful memories with extinction training during reconsolidation: a human study using auditory aversive stimuli. PLOS ONE 7:e38849 [Google Scholar]
  77. Pachas GN, Gilman J, Orr SP, Hoeppner B, Carlini SV. et al. 2015. Single dose propranolol does not affect physiologic or emotional reactivity to smoking cues. Psychopharmacology 232:1619–28 [Google Scholar]
  78. Parens E. 2010. The ethics of memory blunting: some initial thoughts. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 4:190 [Google Scholar]
  79. Pedreira M, Pérez-Cuesta L, Maldonado H. 2004. Mismatch between what is expected and what actually occurs triggers memory reconsolidation or extinction. Learn. Mem. 11:579–85 [Google Scholar]
  80. Piñeyro ME, Ferrer Monti RI, Alfei JM, Bueno AM, Urcelay GP. 2013. Memory destabilization is critical for the success of the reactivation-extinction procedure. Learn. Mem. 21:46–54 [Google Scholar]
  81. Poundja J, Sanche S, Tremblay J, Brunet A. 2012. Trauma reactivation under the influence of propranolol: an examination of clinical predictors. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol. 3:15470 [Google Scholar]
  82. Pres. Counc. Bioeth. 2003. Beyond Therapy: Biotechnology and the Pursuit of Happiness New York: Regan Books
  83. Przybyslawski J, Roullet P, Sara SJ. 1999. Attenuation of emotional and nonemotional memories after their reactivation: role of β adrenergic receptors. J. Neurosci. 19:6623–28The first paper to underscore the clinical relevance of reconsolidation interference for the treatment of emotional disorders. [Google Scholar]
  84. Przybyslawski J, Sara SJ. 1997. Reconsolidation of memory after its reactivation. Behav. Brain Res. 84:241–46 [Google Scholar]
  85. Quartermain D, McEwen BS, Azmitia EC. 1972. Recovery of memory following amnesia in the rat and mouse. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 79:360–70 [Google Scholar]
  86. Rao-Ruiz P, Rotaru DC, van der Loo RJ, Mansvelder HD, Stiedl O. et al. 2011. Retrieval-specific endocytosis of GluA2-AMPARs underlies adaptive reconsolidation of contextual fear. Nat. Neurosci. 14:1302–8 [Google Scholar]
  87. Riccio DC, Millin PM, Bogart AR. 2006. Reconsolidation: a brief history, a retrieval view, and some recent issues. Learn. Mem. 13:536–44 [Google Scholar]
  88. Rubin RD. 1976. Clinical use of retrograde amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock: a conditioning hypothesis. Can. Psychiatr Assoc. J. 21:87–90 [Google Scholar]
  89. Ryan TJ, Roy DS, Pignatelli M, Arons A, Tonegawa S. 2015. Engram cells retain memory under retrograde amnesia. Science 348:1007–13 [Google Scholar]
  90. Saladin ME, Gray KM, McRae-Clark AL, Larowe SD, Yeatts SD. et al. 2013. A double blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of post-retrieval propranolol on reconsolidation of memory for craving and cue reactivity in cocaine dependent humans. Psychopharmacology 226:721–37 [Google Scholar]
  91. Sara SJ. 2000. Retrieval and reconsolidation: toward a neurobiology of remembering. Learn. Mem. 7:73–84Provides an excellent narrative of early basic work on reconsolidation and the induction of amnesia. [Google Scholar]
  92. Schiller D, Monfils MH, Raio CM, Johnson DC, Ledoux JE, Phelps EA. 2010. Preventing the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms. Nature 463:49–53 [Google Scholar]
  93. Schiller D, Phelps EA. 2011. Does reconsolidation occur in humans. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 5:24 [Google Scholar]
  94. Schutsky K, Ouyang M, Castelino CB, Zhang L, Thomas SA. 2011. Stress and glucocorticoids impair memory retrieval via β2-adrenergic, Gi/o-coupled suppression of cAMP signaling. J. Neurosci. 31:14172–81 [Google Scholar]
  95. Schwabe L, Wolf OT. 2009. New episodic learning interferes with the reconsolidation of autobiographical memories. PLOS ONE 4:e7519 [Google Scholar]
  96. Schwabe L, Wolf OT. 2010. Stress impairs the reconsolidation of autobiographical memories. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 94:153–57 [Google Scholar]
  97. Sevenster D, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2012. Retrieval per se is not sufficient to trigger reconsolidation of human fear memory. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 97:338–45 [Google Scholar]
  98. Sevenster D, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2013. Prediction error governs pharmacologically induced amnesia for learned fear. Science 339:830–33Provided direct evidence for the role of prediction error in inducing memory reconsolidation. [Google Scholar]
  99. Sevenster D, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2014a. Fear conditioning of SCR but not the startle reflex requires conscious discrimination of threat and safety. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 8:32 [Google Scholar]
  100. Sevenster D, Beckers T, Kindt M. 2014b. Prediction error demarcates the transition from retrieval, to reconsolidation, to new learning. Learn. Mem. 21:580–84 [Google Scholar]
  101. Soeter M, Kindt M. 2010. Dissociating response systems: erasing fear from memory. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 94:30–41 [Google Scholar]
  102. Soeter M, Kindt M. 2011. Disrupting reconsolidation: pharmacological and behavioral manipulations. Learn. Mem. 18:357–66 [Google Scholar]
  103. Soeter M, Kindt M. 2012a. Erasing fear for an imagined threat event. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37:1769–79 [Google Scholar]
  104. Soeter M, Kindt M. 2012b. Stimulation of the noradrenergic system during memory formation impairs extinction learning but not the disruption of reconsolidation. Neuropsychopharmacology 37:1204–15 [Google Scholar]
  105. Soeter M, Kindt M. 2015a. An abrupt transformation of phobic behavior after a post-retrieval amnesic agent. Biol. Psychiatry 78:880–86 [Google Scholar]
  106. Soeter M, Kindt M. 2015b. Retrieval cues that trigger reconsolidation of associative fear memory are not necessarily an exact replica of the original learning experience. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 9:122 [Google Scholar]
  107. Stafford JM, Maughan DK, Ilioi EC, Lattal KM. 2013. Exposure to a fearful context during periods of memory plasticity impairs extinction via hyperactivation of frontal-amygdalar circuits. Learn. Mem. 20:156–63 [Google Scholar]
  108. Steinfurth EC, Kanen JW, Raio CM, Clem RL, Huganir RL, Phelps EA. 2014. Young and old Pavlovian fear memories can be modified with extinction training during reconsolidation in humans. Learn. Mem. 21:338–41 [Google Scholar]
  109. Summers MJ, Crowe SF, Ng KT. 1997. Administration of DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (AP5) induces transient inhibition of reminder-activated memory retrieval in day-old chicks. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 5:311–21 [Google Scholar]
  110. Suzuki A, Josselyn SA, Frankland PW, Masushige S, Silva AJ, Kida S. 2004. Memory reconsolidation and extinction have distinct temporal and biochemical signatures. J. Neurosci. 24:4787–95 [Google Scholar]
  111. van Ast VA, Cornelisse S, Meeter M, Joëls M, Kindt M. 2013. Time-dependent effects of cortisol on the contextualization of emotional memories. Biol. Psychiatry 74:809–16 [Google Scholar]
  112. van Ast VA, Cornelisse S, Meeter M, Kindt M. 2014. Cortisol mediates the effects of stress on the contextual dependency of memories. Psychoneuroendocrinology 41:97–110 [Google Scholar]
  113. van den Hout MA, Eidhof MB, Verboom J, Littel M, Engelhard IM. 2014. Blurring of emotional and non-emotional memories by taxing working memory during recall. Cogn. Emot. 28:717–27 [Google Scholar]
  114. Van Gucht D, Vansteenwegen D, Van den Bergh O, Beckers T. 2008. Conditioned craving cues elicit an automatic approach tendency. Behav. Res. Ther. 46:1160–69 [Google Scholar]
  115. Vervliet B, Craske MG, Hermans D. 2013. Fear extinction and relapse: state of the art. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 9:215–48 [Google Scholar]
  116. Vervliet B, Vansteenwegen D, Baeyens F, Hermans D, Eelen P. 2005. Return of fear in a human differential conditioning paradigm caused by a stimulus change after extinction. Behav. Res. Ther. 43:357–71 [Google Scholar]
  117. Villain H, Benkahoul A, Drougard A, Lafragette M, Muzotte E. et al. 2016. Effects of propranolol, a β-noradrenergic antagonist, on memory consolidation and reconsolidation in mice. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 10:49 [Google Scholar]
  118. Walker DL, Davis M. 2002. The role of amygdala glutamate receptors in fear learning, fear-potentiated startle, and extinction. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 71:379–92 [Google Scholar]
  119. Wang SH, de Oliveira Alvares L, Nader K. 2009. Cellular and systems mechanisms of memory strength as a constraint on auditory fear reconsolidation. Nat. Neurosci. 12:905–12 [Google Scholar]
  120. Weike AI, Hamm AO, Schupp HT, Runge U, Schroeder HW, Kessler C. 2005. Fear conditioning following unilateral temporal lobectomy: dissociation of conditioned startle potentiation and autonomic learning. J. Neurosci. 25:11117–24 [Google Scholar]
  121. Williams JM, Barnhofer T, Crane C, Hermans D, Raes F. et al. 2007. Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder. Psychol. Bull. 133:122–48 [Google Scholar]
  122. Wood NE, Rosasco ML, Suris AM, Spring JD, Marin MF. et al. 2015. Pharmacological blockade of memory reconsolidation in posttraumatic stress disorder: three negative psychophysiological studies. Psychiatry Res 225:31–39 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045209
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error