1932

Abstract

Increased interest in oceans is leading to new and renewed global governance efforts directed toward ocean issues in areas of food production, biodiversity conservation, industrialization, global environmental change, and pollution. Global oceans governance efforts face challenges and opportunities related to the nature of oceans and to actors involved in, the scale of, and knowledge informing their governance. We review these topics generally and in relation to nine new and emerging issues: small-scale fisheries (SSFs), aquaculture, biodiversity conservation on the high seas, large marine protected areas (LMPAs), tuna fisheries, deep-sea mining, ocean acidification (OA), blue carbon (BC), and plastics pollution.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014-021121
2016-10-17
2024-04-20
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/energy/41/1/annurev-environ-102014-021121.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014-021121&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Campbell LM, Gray NJ, Fairbanks LW, Silver JJ, Gruby RL. 1.  2013. Oceans at Rio+20. Conserv. Lett. 6:439–47 [Google Scholar]
  2. Silver JJ, Gray NJ, Campbell LM, Fairbanks LW, Gruby RL. 2.  2015. Tracking Blue Economy and human-oceans discourse at Rio+20. Environ. Dev. 24:135–160 [Google Scholar]
  3. Miles EL.3.  2009. On the increasing vulnerability of the world ocean to multiple stresses. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 34:17–41 [Google Scholar]
  4. Abbott J, Anderson JL, Campling L, Hannesson R, Havice E. 4.  et al. 2014. Steering the Global Partnership for Oceans. Mar. Resour. Econ. 29:1–16 [Google Scholar]
  5. Sala E, Knowlton N. 5.  2006. Global marine biodiversity trends. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 31:93–122 [Google Scholar]
  6. Chisholm SW, Olson RJ, Zettler ER, Waterbury J, Goericke R, Welschmeyer N. 6.  1988. A novel free-living prochlorophyte occurs at high cell concentrations in the oceanic euphotic zone. Nature 334:340–43 [Google Scholar]
  7. Doney SC, Fabry VJ, Feely RA, Kleypas JA. 7.  2009. Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 1:169–92 [Google Scholar]
  8. Tao C, Li H, Jin X, Zhou J, Wu T. 8.  et al. 2014. Seafloor hydrothermal activity and polymetallic sulfide exploration on the southwest Indian ridge. Chinese Sci. Bull. 59:2266–76 [Google Scholar]
  9. Ban NC, Bax NJ, Gjerde KM, Devillers R, Dunn DC. 9.  et al. 2014. Systematic conservation planning: a better recipe for managing the high seas for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Conserv. Lett. 7:41–54 [Google Scholar]
  10. Druel E, Gjerde KM. 10.  2014. Sustaining marine life beyond boundaries: options for an implementing agreement for marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Mar. Policy 49:90–97 [Google Scholar]
  11. Sagarin RD, Turnipseed M. 11.  2012. The Public Trust Doctrine: where ecology meets natural resources management. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 37:473–96 [Google Scholar]
  12. Basurto X, Bennett A, Weaver AH, Rodriguez-Van Dyck S, Aceves-Bueno J-S. 12.  2013. Cooperative and noncooperative strategies for small-scale fisheries’ self-governance in the globalization era: implications for conservation. Ecol. Soc. 18:438 [Google Scholar]
  13. Campbell LM, Gray NJ, Hazen EL, Shackeroff JM. 13.  2009. Beyond baselines: rethinking priorities for ocean conservation. Ecol. Soc. 14:14 [Google Scholar]
  14. Steinberg PE.14.  2001. The Social Construction of the Ocean New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  15. Steinberg PE.15.  2008. It's so easy being green: overuse, underexposure, and the marine environmental consensus. Geogra. Compass 2:2080–96 [Google Scholar]
  16. Mansfield B.16.  2004. Neoliberalism in the oceans: “rationalization,” property rights, and the commons question. Geoforum 35:313–36 [Google Scholar]
  17. Zalik A.17.  2015. Trading on the offshore: territorialization and the ocean grab in the international seabed. Beyond Free Trade: Alternative Approaches to Trade, Politics, and Power K Ervine, G Fridell 173–90 London: Palgrave Macmillan [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. United Nations Environ. Progr. (UNEP), FAO, IMO, UNDP, IUCN et al. 2012. Green Economy in a Blue World. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy and www.unep.org/regionalseas
  19. Gray N.19.  2010. Sea change: exploring the international effort to promote marine protected areas. Conserv. Soc. 8:331–38 [Google Scholar]
  20. Gray NJ, Gruby RL, Campbell LM. 20.  2014. Boundary objects and global consensus: scalar narratives of marine conservation in the Convention on Biological Diversity. Glob. Environ. Policy 14:64–83 [Google Scholar]
  21. Chuenpagdee R.21.  2011. World Small-Scale Fisheries Contemporary Visions Delft, The Netherlands: Eburon Acad. Publ.
  22. Biermann F, Pattberg P. 22.  2008. Global environmental governance: taking stock, moving forward. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 33:277–94 [Google Scholar]
  23. Dingwerth K, Pattberg P. 23.  2006. Global governance as a perspective on world politics. Glob. Gov. 12:185–203 [Google Scholar]
  24. Betsill MM, Corell E. 24.  2008. NGO Diplomacy: The Influence of Nongovernment Organizations in International Environmental Negotiations Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
  25. McCarthy J.25.  2005. Scale, sovereignty, and strategy in environmental governance. Antipode 37:731–53 [Google Scholar]
  26. Lemos MC, Agrawal A. 26.  2006. Environmental governance. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 31:297–325 [Google Scholar]
  27. Andonova LB, Mitchell RB. 27.  2010. The rescaling of global environmental politics. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 35:255–82 [Google Scholar]
  28. Haas PM.28.  1989. Do regimes matter? Epistemic communities and Mediterranean pollution control. Int. Organ. 43:377–403 [Google Scholar]
  29. Miller C.29.  2001. Hybrid management: boundary organizations, science policy, and environmental governance in the climate regime. Sci. Technol. Hum. Values 26:478–500 [Google Scholar]
  30. Jasanoff S.30.  1996. Science and norms in global environmental regimes. Earthly Goods: Environmental Change and Social Justice Hampson FO, Reppy J. 173–97 Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  31. Büscher B, Sullivan S, Neves K, Igoe J, Brockington D. 31.  2012. Towards a synthesized critique of neoliberal biodiversity conservation. Capital. Nat. Social. 23:4–30 [Google Scholar]
  32. Gruby RL, Campbell LM. 32.  2013. Scalar politics and the region: strategies for transcending Pacific Island smallness on a global environmental governance stage. Environ. Plann. A 45:2046–63 [Google Scholar]
  33. Jentoft S, van Son TC, Bjørkan M. 33.  2007. Marine protected areas: a governance system analysis. Hum. Ecol. 35:611–22 [Google Scholar]
  34. Evans LS, Ban NC, Schoon M, Nenadovic M. 34.  2014. Keeping the ‘Great’ in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale governance of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Int. J. Commons 8:396–427 [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. UN General Assembly 2015. Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development Resolut. A/RES/70/1, Gen. Assem., 70th Sess., New York, Oct. 21. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E
  36. 36. UN General Assembly 2015. Development of an international legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction Resolut. A/RES/69/292, Gen. Assem., 69th Sess., New York, June 19. http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/69/292
  37. Dunn DC, Ardron J, Bax N, Bernal P, Cleary J. 37.  et al. 2014. The Convention on Biological Diversity's ecologically or biologically significant areas: origins, development, and current status. Mar. Policy 49:137–45 [Google Scholar]
  38. Ardron JA, Clark MR, Penney AJ, Hourigan TF, Rowden AA. 38.  et al. 2014. A systematic approach towards the identification and protection of vulnerable marine ecosystems. Mar. Policy 49:146–54 [Google Scholar]
  39. Corson C, Campbell LM, McDonald KI. 39.  2014. Capturing the personal in politics: ethnographies of global environmental governance. Glob. Environ. Policy 14:21–40 [Google Scholar]
  40. Parmentier R.40.  2012. Role and impact of international NGOs in global ocean governance. Ocean Yearb. Online 26:209–29 [Google Scholar]
  41. Sievanen L, Gruby RL, Campbell LM. 41.  2013. Fixing marine governance in Fiji? The new scalar narrative of ecosystem-based management. Glob. Environ. Change 23:206–16 [Google Scholar]
  42. Freestone D, Johnson D, Ardron J, Morrison KK, Unger S. 42.  2014. Can existing institutions protect biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction? Experiences from two on-going processes. Mar. Policy 49:167–75 [Google Scholar]
  43. Balboa CM.43.  2014. How successful transnational non-governmental organizations set themselves up for failure on the ground. World Dev. 54:273–87 [Google Scholar]
  44. Agardy T.44.  2005. Global marine conservation policy versus site-level implementation: the mismatch of scale and its implications. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 300:242–47 [Google Scholar]
  45. Benson Wahlén C. 45.  2014. Understanding varying approaches among conservation professionals: a case study from Papua New Guinea. Hum. Ecol. 42:413–24 [Google Scholar]
  46. 46. UN Food Agric. Org. (FAO) 2014. Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication Rome: FAO
  47. O'Neill K, Weinthal E, Marion Suiseeya KR, Bernstein S, Cohn A. 47.  et al. 2013. Methods and global environmental governance. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 38:441–71 [Google Scholar]
  48. Berkes F.48.  2006. From community-based resource management to complex systems: the scale issue and marine commons. Ecol. Soc. 11:45 [Google Scholar]
  49. Palumbi SR.49.  2004. Marine reserves and ocean neighborhoods: the spatial scale of marine populations and their management. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 29:31–68 [Google Scholar]
  50. Barkin JS, DeSombre ER. 50.  2013. Saving Global Fisheries: Reducing Fishing Capacity to Promote Sustainability Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
  51. Melick D, Kinch J, Govan H. 51.  2012. How global biodiversity targets risk becoming counterproductive: the case of Papua New Guinea. Conserv. Soc. 10:344–53 [Google Scholar]
  52. Campbell LM.52.  2007. Reconciling local conservation practice with global discourse: a political ecology of sea turtle conservation. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 97:313–34 [Google Scholar]
  53. Campbell LM, Silver JJ, Gray NJ, Ranger S, Broderick A. 53.  et al. 2009. Co-management of sea turtle fisheries: biogeography versus geopolitics. Mar. Policy 33:137–45 [Google Scholar]
  54. Campbell LM, Godfrey MH. 54.  2010. Geo-political genetics: claiming the commons through species mapping. Geoforum 41:897–907 [Google Scholar]
  55. Gruby RL, Basurto X. 55.  2013. Multi-level governance for large marine commons: politics and polycentricity in Palau's protected area network. Environ. Sci. Pol. 33:260–72 [Google Scholar]
  56. St. Martin K, Hall-Arber M.56.  2008. The missing layer: geo-technologies, communities, and implications for marine spatial planning. Mar. Policy 32:779–86 [Google Scholar]
  57. Halpern BS, Walbridge S, Selkoe KA, Kappel CV, Micheli F. 57.  et al. 2008. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319:948–52 [Google Scholar]
  58. Humphris SE.58.  2009. Vehicles for deep sea exploration. Elements of Physical Oceanography: A Derivative of the Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences JH Steele, SA Thorpe, KK Turekian 197–209 London: Elsevier [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. Census of Marine Life 2011. Scientific Results to Support the Sustainable Use and Conservation of Marine Life: A Summary of the Census of Marine Life for Decision Makers Washington, DC: Census of Marine Life Int. Secr.
  60. Worm B, Barbier EB, Beaumont N, Duffy JE, Folke C. 60.  et al. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787–90 [Google Scholar]
  61. Arnason R, Kelleher K, Willmann R. 61.  2008. The Sunken Billions: The Economic Justification for Fisheries Reform Washington, DC: World Bank/FAO
  62. Berkes F, Hughes TP, Steneck RS, Wilson JA, Bellwood DR. 62.  et al. 2006. Globalization, roving bandits, and marine resources. Science 311:1557–58 [Google Scholar]
  63. Campbell LM, Hagerman S, Gray NJ. 63.  2014. Producing targets for conservation: science and politics at the Tenth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Global Environ. Pol. 1441–63
  64. Tsing AL.64.  2005. Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  65. Brosius JP, Russell D. 65.  2003. Conservation from above imposing transboundary conservation: an anthropological perspective on transboundary protected areas and ecoregional planning cooperation between internationally adjoining protected areas. J. Sustain. Forestr. 17:39–65 [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. St. Martin K 2001. Making space for community resource management in fisheries. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 91:122–42 [Google Scholar]
  67. Cao L, Naylor R, Henriksson P, Leadbitter D, Metian M. 67.  et al. 2015. China's aquaculture and the world's wild fisheries. Science 347:133–35 [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. FAO 2014. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture Rome, Italy: FAO
  69. Pauly D.69.  1997. Small-scale fisheries in the tropics: marginality, marginalization, and some implications for fisheries management. Global Trends: Fisheries Management EK Pikitch, DD Huppert, MP Sissenwine 40–49 Bethesda, MD: Am. Fish. Soc. [Google Scholar]
  70. de Graaf GJ, Grainger RJR, Westlund L, Willmann R, Mills D. 70.  et al. 2011. The status of routine fishery data collection in Southeast Asia, Central America, the South Pacific, and West Africa, with special reference to small-scale fisheries. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 68:1743–50 [Google Scholar]
  71. Pollnac RB.71.  1985. Social and cultural characteristics of small-scale fishery development. Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Development Cernea MM. 189–223 Washington, DC: World Bank [Google Scholar]
  72. Jentoft S.72.  2014. Walking the talk: implementing the international voluntary guidelines for securing sustainable small-scale fisheries. Marit. Stud. 13:16 [Google Scholar]
  73. Béné C, Arthur R, Norbury H, Allison EH, Beveridge M. 73.  et al. 2016. Contribution of fisheries and aquaculture to food security and poverty reduction: assessing the current evidence. World Dev. 79:177–96 [Google Scholar]
  74. Cinner JE, Huchery C, Hicks CC, Daw TM, Marshall N. 74.  et al. 2015. Changes in adaptive capacity of Kenyan fishing communities. Nat. Clim. Change 5:872–76 [Google Scholar]
  75. Hilborn R, Parrish JK, Litle K. 75.  2005. Fishing rights or fishing wrongs?. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 15:191–99 [Google Scholar]
  76. Johnson C.76.  2004. Uncommon ground: the ‘poverty of history’ in common property discourse. Dev. Change 35:407–34 [Google Scholar]
  77. Ponte S.77.  2008. Greener than thou: the political economy of fish ecolabeling and its local manifestations in South Africa. World Dev. 36:159–75 [Google Scholar]
  78. Stratoudakis Y, McConney P, Duncan J, Ghofar A, Gitonga N. 78.  2015. Fisheries certification in the developing world: locks and keys or square pegs in round holes?. Fish. Res. In press
  79. Berkes F.79.  1986. Local-level management and the commons problem: a comparative study of Turkish coastal fisheries. Mar. Policy 10:215–29 [Google Scholar]
  80. McCay BJ, Jentoft S. 80.  1996. From the bottom up: participatory issues in fisheries management. Soc. Nat. Resour. 9:237–50 [Google Scholar]
  81. Davis A, Ruddle K. 81.  2012. Massaging the misery: recent approaches to fisheries governance and the betrayal of small-scale fisheries. Hum. Organ. 71:244–54 [Google Scholar]
  82. De Silva SS. 82.  2012. Climate change impacts: challenges for aquaculture Farming the Waters for People and Food: Proceedings of the Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010, Phuket, Thailand. 22–25 September 2010 RP Subasinghe, JR Arthur, DM Bartley, SS De Silva, M Halwart 75–110 Rome, FAO; Bangkok, Thai., Netw. Aquacult. Cent. Asia-Pac. [Google Scholar]
  83. Klinger D, Naylor R. 83.  2012. Searching for solutions in aquaculture: charting a sustainable course. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 37:247–76 [Google Scholar]
  84. Islam MS.84.  2014. Confronting the Blue Revolution: Industrial Aquaculture and Sustainability in the Global South. Toronto, Can: Univ. Toronto Press
  85. 85. World Bank 2007. Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture. Washington, DC: World Bank
  86. Jonell M, Phillips M, Rönnbäck P, Troell M. 86.  2013. Eco-certification of farmed seafood: Will it make a difference?. Ambio 42:659–74 [Google Scholar]
  87. Bush SR, Belton B, Hall D, Vandergeest P, Murray FJ. 87.  et al. 2013. Certify sustainable aquaculture. Science 341:1067–68 [Google Scholar]
  88. Kalfagianni A, Pattberg P. 88.  2013. Fishing in muddy waters: exploring the conditions for effective governance of fisheries and aquaculture. Mar. Policy 38:124–32 [Google Scholar]
  89. Vandergeest P, Unno A. 89.  2012. A new extraterritoriality? Aquaculture certification, sovereignty, and empire. Polit. Geogr. 31:358–67 [Google Scholar]
  90. Campbell B, Pauly D. 90.  2013. Mariculture: a global analysis of production trends since 1950. Mar. Policy 39:94–100 [Google Scholar]
  91. Belton B, Little D. 91.  2008. The development of aquaculture in central Thailand: domestic demand versus export-led production. J. Agrar. Change 8:123–43 [Google Scholar]
  92. Barclay K.92.  2010. Impacts of tuna industries on coastal communities in Pacific Island countries. Mar. Policy 34:406–13 [Google Scholar]
  93. Campling L, Havice E. 93.  2014. The problem of property in industrial fisheries. J. Peasant Stud. 41:707–27 [Google Scholar]
  94. Havice E, Reed K. 94.  2012. Fishing for development? Tuna resource access and industrial change in Papua New Guinea. J. Agrar. Change 12:413–35 [Google Scholar]
  95. Havice E, Campling L. 95.  2013. Articulating upgrading: island developing states and canned tuna production. Environ. Plann. A 45:2610–27 [Google Scholar]
  96. Havice E.96.  2013. Rights-based management in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean tuna fishery: economic and environmental change under the Vessel Day Scheme. Mar. Policy 42:259–67 [Google Scholar]
  97. Havice E, Campling L. 97.  2010. Shifting tides in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean tuna fishery: the political economy of regulation and industry responses. Glob. Environ. Policy 10:89–114 [Google Scholar]
  98. Leroy B, Peatman T, Usu T, Caillot S, Moore B. 98.  et al. 2016. Interactions between artisanal and industrial tuna fisheries: insights from a decade of tagging experiments. Mar. Policy 65:11–19 [Google Scholar]
  99. Carlsson J, McDowell JR, Carlsson JEL, Graves JE. 99.  2007. Genetic identity of YOY Bluefin tuna from the eastern and western Atlantic spawning areas. J. Hered. 98:23–28 [Google Scholar]
  100. Block BA, Teo SLH, Walli A, Boustany A, Stokesbury MJW. 100.  et al. 2005. Electronic tagging and population structure of Atlantic bluefin tuna. Nature 434:1121–27 [Google Scholar]
  101. Hein JR, Mizell K, Koschinksy A, Conrad TA. 101.  2013. Deep-ocean mineral deposits as a source of critical metals for high- and green-technology applications: comparison with land-based resources. Ore Geol. Rev. 51:1–14 [Google Scholar]
  102. 102. Secr. Pac. Comm. (SPC) Geosci. Div 2014. Tonga a world leader in seabed minerals law. Pacific Community Sept. 1. http://gsd.spc.int/media-releases/1-latest-news/583–tonga-a-world-leader-in-seabed-minerals-law
  103. Jobstvogt N, Hanley N, Hynes S, Kenter J, Witte U. 103.  2014. Twenty thousand sterling under the sea: estimating the value of protecting deep-sea biodiversity. Ecol. Econ. 97:10–19 [Google Scholar]
  104. Miner M.104.  2013. Will deep-sea mining yield an underwater gold rush?. National Geographic News Online Febr. 3. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130201-underwater-mining-gold-precious-metals-oceans-environment/
  105. Van Dover CL. 105.  2014. Impacts of anthropogenic disturbances at deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems: a review. Mar. Environ. Res. 102:59–72 [Google Scholar]
  106. 106. CBD 2010. Strategic plan for biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets Decis. X/2, Annex IV, Conf. Parties, 10th, Nagoya, Japn. Oct. 18–29
  107. Wood L.107.  2011. Global marine protection targets: How S.M.A.R.T are they?. Environ. Manag. 47:525–35 [Google Scholar]
  108. Spalding MD, Meliane I, Milam A, Fitzgerald C, Hale LZ. 108.  2013. Protecting marine spaces: global targets and changing approaches. Ocean Yearb. 27:213–48 [Google Scholar]
  109. 109. UN General Assembly 2015. Letter dated 13 February 2015 from the Co-Chairs of the Ad Hoc Open-Ended Informal Working Group to the President of the General Assembly. Doc. A/69/78*, Gen. Assem., 69th Sess., New York, Febr. 13. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/780
  110. McCauley DJ, Pinsky ML, Palumbi SR, Estes JA, Joyce FH, Warner RR. 110.  2015. Marine defaunation: animal loss in the global ocean. Science 347. doi: 10.1126/science.1255641
  111. Ardron JA, Rayfuse R, Gjerde K, Warner R. 111.  2014. The sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity in ABNJ: What can be achieved using existing international agreements?. Mar. Policy 49:98–108 [Google Scholar]
  112. Fox HE, Mascia MB, Basurto X, Costa A, Glew L. 112.  et al. 2012. Reexamining the science of marine protected areas: linking knowledge to action. Conserv. Lett. 5:1–10 [Google Scholar]
  113. 113. World Ocean Council 2014. International Ocean Governance: Policy Brief Honolulu, HI: World Ocean Counc.
  114. Matz-Lück N, Fuchs J. 114.  2014. The impact of OSPAR on protected area management beyond national jurisdiction: effective regional cooperation or a network of paper parks?. Mar. Policy 49:155–66 [Google Scholar]
  115. Gruby RL, Gray NJ, Campbell LM, Acton LD. 115.  2015. Toward a social science research agenda for large marine protected areas. Conserv. Lett. doi: 10.1111/conl.12194. In press
  116. De Santo E. 116.  2013. Missing marine protected area (MPA) targets: how the push for quantity over quality undermines sustainability and social justice. J. Environ. Manag. 12:137–46 [Google Scholar]
  117. Toonen RJ, Wilhelm TA, Maxwell SM, Wagner D, Bowen BW. 117.  et al. 2013. One size does not fit all: the emerging frontier in large-scale marine conservation. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 77:7–10 [Google Scholar]
  118. 118. Secr. Convention Biol. Divers 2010. Global Biodiversity Outlook 3. Montréal, Can: Secr., Convention Biol. Divers.
  119. Dulvy NK.119.  2013. Super-sized MPAs and the marginalization of species conservation. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 23:357–62 [Google Scholar]
  120. Wilhelm A, Sheppard CRC, Sheppard ALS, Gaymer CF, Parks J. 120.  et al. 2014. Large marine protected areas—advantages and challenges of going big. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 24:24–30 [Google Scholar]
  121. 121. The Pew Charitable Trusts 2015. Fact sheet. The Virtual Watch Room: pioneering technology to monitor and protect marine reserves. Trust Magazine Jan. 21. http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2015/01/virtual-watch-room
  122. Devillers R, Pressey RL, Grech A, Kittinger JN, Edgar GJ. 122.  et al. 2015. Reinventing residual reserves in the sea: Are we favouring ease of establishment over need for protection?. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 25:480–504 [Google Scholar]
  123. Richmond L, Kotowicz D. 123.  2015. Equity and access in marine protected areas: the history and future of “traditional indigenous fishing” in the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument. Appl. Geogr. 59:117–24 [Google Scholar]
  124. Gaines SD, White C, Carr MH, Palumbi SR. 124.  2010. Designing marine reserve networks for both conservation and fisheries management. PNAS 107:18286–93 [Google Scholar]
  125. Wagner D.125.  2013. Big Ocean: A Shared Research Agenda for Large-scale Marine Protected Areas. Honolulu, HI: Big Ocean http://bigoceanmanagers.org/wp-content/uploads/bigocean_research_agenda_narrative_020113_FINAL.pdf
  126. 126. IOC/UNESCO, IMO, FAO, UNDP 2011. A Blueprint for Ocean and Coastal Sustainability Paris: IOC/UNESCO
  127. Cooley SR, Doney SC. 127.  2009. Anticipating ocean acidification's economic consequences for commercial fisheries. Environ. Res. Lett. 4:024007 [Google Scholar]
  128. Branch TA, DeJoseph BM, Ray LJ, Wagner CA. 128.  2013. Impacts of ocean acidification on marine seafood. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28:178–86 [Google Scholar]
  129. Strong AL, Kroeker KJ, Teneva LT, Mease LA, Kelly RP. 129.  2014. Ocean acidification 2.0: managing our changing coastal ocean chemistry. BioScience 64:581–92 [Google Scholar]
  130. Gaylord B, Kroeker K, Sunday J, Anderson K, Barry J. 130.  et al. 2015. Ocean acidification through the lens of ecological theory. Ecology 96:3–15 [Google Scholar]
  131. Kroeker KJ, Kordas RL, Crim RN, Singh GG. 131.  2010. Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms. Ecol. Lett. 13:1419–34 [Google Scholar]
  132. Nagelkerken I, Russell B, Gillanders B, Connell S. 132.  2015. Ocean acidification alters fish populations indirectly through habitat modification. Nat. Climate Change 6:89–93 [Google Scholar]
  133. Kelly RP, Foley MM, Fisher WS, Feely RA, Halpern BS. 133.  et al. 2011. Mitigating local causes of ocean acidification with existing laws. Science 332:1036–37 [Google Scholar]
  134. Kim RE.134.  2012. Is a new multilateral environmental agreement on ocean acidification necessary?. Rev. Eur. Commun. Int. Environ. Law 21:243–58 [Google Scholar]
  135. Bille R, Kelly R, Biastoch A, Harrould-Kolieb E, Herr D. 135.  et al. 2013. Taking action against ocean acidification: a review of management and policy options. Environ. Manag. 52:761–79 [Google Scholar]
  136. Brander LM, Rehdanz K, Tol RSJ, Van Beukering PJH. 136.  2012. The economic impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs. Clim. Chang. Econ. 3:1250002 [Google Scholar]
  137. Cooley SR, Lucey N, Kite-Powell H, Doney SC. 137.  2012. Nutrition and income from molluscs today imply vulnerability to ocean acidification tomorrow. Fish Fisheries 13:182–215 [Google Scholar]
  138. Cooley S, Rheuban JE, Hart DR, Luu V, Glover DM. 138.  et al. 2015. An integrated assessment model for helping the United States sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) fishery plan ahead for ocean acidification and warming. PLoS ONE 10:e0124145 [Google Scholar]
  139. Frisch L, Mathis JT, Kettle NP, Trainor SF. 139.  2015. Gauging perceptions of ocean acidification in Alaska. Mar. Policy 51:101–10 [Google Scholar]
  140. Cooley SKY, Mathis J, Williamson P. 140.  2015. Oceanography 28 Special Issue: Emerging Themes in Ocean Acidification Science. Rockville, MD: Oceanogr. Soc.
  141. Herr D, Pidgeon E, Laffoley D. 141.  2012. Blue Carbon Policy Framework 2.0: Based on the Discussion of the International Blue Carbon Policy Working Group Gland, Switz.; Arlingt., VA: IUCN/CI
  142. Duarte CM, Losada IJ, Hendriks IE, Mazarrasa I, Marbà N. 142.  2013. The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nat. Climate Change 3:961–68 [Google Scholar]
  143. Grimsditch G, Alder J, Nakamura T, Kenchington R, Tamelander J. 143.  2013. The blue carbon special edition—introduction and overview. Ocean Coast. Manag. 83:1–4 [Google Scholar]
  144. Gordon D, Murray BC, Pendleton L, Victor B. 144.  2011. Financing Options for Blue Carbon: Opportunities and Lessons from the REDD+ Experience Durham, NC: Nicholas Inst. Environ. Policy Solut.
  145. Thomas S.145.  2014. Blue carbon: knowledge gaps, critical issues, and novel approaches. Ecol. Econ. 107:22–38 [Google Scholar]
  146. Thomas S.146.  2016. Between Tun Mustapha and the deep blue sea: the political ecology of blue carbon in Sabah. Environ. Sci. Policy 55:20–35 [Google Scholar]
  147. Olson J.147.  2011. Understanding and contextualizing social impacts from the privatization of fisheries: an overview. Ocean Coast. Manag. 54:353–63 [Google Scholar]
  148. Agrawal A, Nepstad D, Chhatre A. 148.  2011. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 36:373–96 [Google Scholar]
  149. Marion Suiseeya KR, Caplow S. 149.  2013. In pursuit of procedural justice: lessons from an analysis of 56 forest carbon project designs. Glob. Environ. Change 23:968–79 [Google Scholar]
  150. Robertson MM.150.  2006. The nature that capital can see: science, state, and market in the commodification of ecosystem services. Environ. Plann. D 24:367–87 [Google Scholar]
  151. Alongi DM.151.  2011. Carbon payments for mangrove conservation: ecosystem constraints and uncertainties of sequestration potential. Environ. Sci. Policy 14:462–70 [Google Scholar]
  152. Theuerkauf E, Stephens J, Ridge J, Fodrie F, Rodriguez A. 152.  2015. Carbon export from fringing saltmarsh shoreline erosion overwhelms carbon storage across a critical width threshold. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 164:367–78 [Google Scholar]
  153. Unsworth RKF, Collier CJ, Henderson GM, McKenzie LJ. 153.  2012. Tropical seagrass meadows modify seawater carbon chemistry: implications for coral reefs impacted by ocean acidification. Environ. Res. Lett. 7:024026 [Google Scholar]
  154. Lau WWY.154.  2013. Beyond carbon: conceptualizing payments for ecosystem services in blue forests on carbon and other marine and coastal ecosystem services. Ocean Coast. Manag. 83:5–14 [Google Scholar]
  155. Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler TR, Perryman M. 155.  et al. 2015. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science 347:768–71 [Google Scholar]
  156. 156. McKinsey & Company, Ocean Conservancy 2015. Stemming the Tide: Land-based Strategies for a Plastic-Free Ocean. San Francisco:: McKinsey & Co.; Washington, DC: Ocean Conserv http://www.oceanconservancy.org/our-work/marine-debris/mckinsey-report-files/full-report-stemming-the.pdf
  157. Cózara A, Echevarría F, González-Gordillo JI, Irigoien X, Úbeda B. 157.  et al. 2014. Plastic debris in the open ocean. PNAS 111:10239–44 [Google Scholar]
  158. Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS. 158.  2011. Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar. Poll. Bull. 62:2588–97 [Google Scholar]
  159. Derraik JGB.159.  2002. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar. Poll. Bull. 44:842–52 [Google Scholar]
  160. Mitchell A.160.  2015. Thinking without the ‘circle’: marine plastic and global ethics. Polit. Geogr. 47:77–85 [Google Scholar]
  161. Oosterhuis F, Papyrakis E, Boteler B. 161.  2014. Economic instruments and marine litter control. Ocean Coast. Manag. 102:47–54 [Google Scholar]
  162. Rochman CM, Kross SM, Armstrong JB, Bogan MT, Darling ES. 162.  et al. 2015. Scientific evidence supports a ban on microbeads. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:10759–61 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102014-021121
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error