1932

Abstract

Systematic conservation planning (SCP) is a rapidly advancing discipline aimed at providing decision support for choices between alternate conservation actions. SCP is often used to inform choices about areas to protect, in order to optimize outcomes for biodiversity while minimizing societal costs. Despite the widespread application of SCP approaches, there is limited understanding of the types of impacts resulting from related projects, and when and where it is most effective. This is compounded by the absence of a standardized approach to evaluating and reporting on the outcomes of SCP projects. We highlight the challenges of undertaking evaluations of complex planning processes, the current state of knowledge about the outcomes of SCP projects, and emerging opportunities to improve evaluation. There is a need for clarity around theories of change, definitions of SCP and impact, and standardized reporting and information sharing across the discipline.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060902
2017-10-17
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/energy/42/1/annurev-environ-102016-060902.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060902&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Bottrill MC, Joseph LN, Carwardine J, Bode M, Cook C. 1.  et al. 2008. Is conservation triage just smart decision making?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23:12649–54 [Google Scholar]
  2. Soulé M. 2.  1985. What is conservation biology?. Bioscience 35:11727–34 [Google Scholar]
  3. Margules CR, Pressey RL. 3.  2000. Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405:6783243–53 [Google Scholar]
  4. Fernandes L, Day J, Lewis A, Slegers S, Kerrigan B. 4.  et al. 2005. Establishing representative no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 19:61733–44 [Google Scholar]
  5. Pressey RL, Mills M, Weeks R, Day JC. 5.  2013. The plan of the day: managing the dynamic transition from regional conservation designs to local conservation actions. Biol. Conserv. 166:155–69 [Google Scholar]
  6. Knight AT, Driver A, Cowling RM, Maze K, Desmet PG. 6.  et al. 2006. Designing systematic conservation assessments that promote effective implementation: best practice from South Africa. Conserv. Biol. 20:3739–50 [Google Scholar]
  7. Morrison J, Loucks C, Long B, Wikramanayake E. 7.  2009. Landscape-scale spatial planning at WWF: a variety of approaches. Oryx 43:4499–507 [Google Scholar]
  8. Kareiva P, Groves C, Marvier M. 8.  2014. The evolving linkage between conservation science and practice at The Nature Conservancy. J. Appl. Ecol. 51:51137–47 [Google Scholar]
  9. Driver A, Sink KJ, Nel JN, Holness S, van Niekerk L. 9.  et al. 2012. National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: an assessment of South Africa's biodiversity and ecosystems Synth. Rep., S. Afr. Natl. Biodiversity Inst., Dep. Environ. Aff. Pretoria, S. Afr.:
  10. Osmond M, Airame S, Caldwell M, Day J. 10.  2010. Lessons for marine conservation planning: a comparison of three marine protected area planning processes. Ocean Coast. Manag. 53:241–51 [Google Scholar]
  11. Sarkar S, Pressey RL, Faith DP, Margules CR, Fuller T. 11.  et al. 2006. Biodiversity conservation planning tools: present status and challenges for the future. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 31:1123–59 [Google Scholar]
  12. Pressey RL, Bottrill MC. 12.  2009. Approaches to landscape- and seascape-scale conservation planning: convergence, contrasts and challenges. Oryx 43:4464–75 [Google Scholar]
  13. Watson JEM, Grantham HS, Wilson KA, Possingham HP. 13.  2011. Systematic conservation planning: past, present and future. Conservation Biogeography RJ Ladle, RJ Whittaker 136–60 Chichester, UK: Blackwell Publ. [Google Scholar]
  14. Knight AT, Sarkar S, Smith RJ, Strange N, Wilson KA. 14.  2011. Engage the hodgepodge: Management factors are essential when prioritizing areas for restoration and conservation action. Divers. Distrib. 17:61234–38 [Google Scholar]
  15. Knight AT, Cowling RM, Rouget M, Balmford A, Lombard AT, Campbell BM. 15.  2008. Knowing but not doing: selecting priority conservation areas and the research-implementation gap. Conserv. Biol. 22:3610–17 [Google Scholar]
  16. Bottrill MC, Pressey RL. 16.  2012. The effectiveness and evaluation of conservation planning. Conserv. Lett. 5:6407–20 [Google Scholar]
  17. Moilanen A, Wilson KA, Possingham HP. 17.  2009. Spatial Conservation Prioritisation: Quantitative Methods and Computational Tools Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  18. Kukkala AS, Moilanen A. 18.  2013. Core concepts of spatial prioritisation in systematic conservation planning. Biol. Rev. 88:443–64 [Google Scholar]
  19. Margules CR, Sarkar S. 19.  2007. Systematic Conservation Planning Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  20. Groves CR, Game ET. 20.  2016. Conservation Planning: Informed Decisions for a Healthier Planet Colorado: Roberts & Co. Publ.
  21. McIntosh EJ, Mckinnon MC, Pressey RL, Grenyer R. 21.  2016. What is the extent and distribution of evidence on conservation outcomes of systematic conservation planning around the globe? A systematic map protocol. Environ. Evid. 5:151–13 [Google Scholar]
  22. Pressey RL. 22.  2002. The first reserve selection algorithm—a retrospective on Jamie Kirkpatrick's 1983 paper. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 6:3434–41 [Google Scholar]
  23. Kirkpatrick JB. 23.  1983. An iterative method for establishing priorities for the selection of nature reserves: an example from Tasmania. Biol. Conserv. 25:2127–34 [Google Scholar]
  24. Ball IR, Possingham HP, Watts M. 24.  2009. Marxan and relatives: software for spatial conservation prioritisation. See Ref. 17 185–95
  25. Weeks R, Aliño PM, Atkinson S, Beldia P, Binson A. 25.  et al. 2014. Developing marine protected area networks in the Coral Triangle: good practices for expanding the Coral Triangle Marine Protected Area system. Coast. Manag. 42:2183–205 [Google Scholar]
  26. Jumin R, Binson A, McGowan J, Magupin S, Beger M. 26.  et al. 2017. From Marxan to management: ocean zoning with stakeholders for Tun Mustapha Park in Sabah, Malaysia. Oryx https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605316001514 [Crossref]
  27. Pressey RL, Nicholls AO. 27.  1989. Efficiency in conservation evaluation: scoring versus iterative approaches. Biol. Conserv. 50:199–218 [Google Scholar]
  28. Justus J, Sarkar S. 28.  2002. The principle of complementarity in the design of reserve networks to conserve biodiversity: a preliminary history. J. Biosci. 27:4421–35 [Google Scholar]
  29. Magris RA, Pressey RL, Weeks R, Ban NC. 29.  2014. Integrating connectivity and climate change into marine conservation planning. Biol. Conserv. 170:207–21 [Google Scholar]
  30. Ban NC, Mills M, Tam J, Hicks CC, Klain S. 30.  et al. 2013. A social-ecological approach to conservation planning: embedding social considerations. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11:4194–202 [Google Scholar]
  31. Knight AT, Grantham HS, Smith RJ, McGregor GK, Possingham HP, Cowling RM. 31.  2011. Land managers’ willingness-to-sell defines conservation opportunity for protected area expansion. Biol. Conserv. 144:112623–30 [Google Scholar]
  32. Ball I, Possingham HP. 32.  2000. Marxan (v1.8.2): Marine Reserve Design Using Spatially Explicit Annealing, A Manual Prepared for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Brisbane, Aust.: Univ. Qld.
  33. Pressey RL, Watts ME, Barrett TW, Ridges MJ. 33.  2009. The C-plan conservation planning system: origins, applications and possible futures. See Ref. 17 211–34
  34. Lehtomäki J, Moilanen A. 34.  2013. Methods and workflow for spatial conservation prioritization using zonation. Environ. Model. Softw. 47:128–37 [Google Scholar]
  35. Wilson KA, Cabeza M, Klein CJ. 35.  2009. Fundamental concepts of spatial conservation prioritization. See Ref. 17 16–27
  36. Camm JD, Polasky S, Solow A, Csuti B. 36.  1996. A note on optimal algorithms for reserve site selection. Biol. Conserv. 78:3353–55 [Google Scholar]
  37. Williams JC, ReVelle CS, Levin SA. 37.  2005. Spatial attributes and reserve design models: a review. Environ. Model. Assess. 10:3163–81 [Google Scholar]
  38. Knight AT, Cowling RM, Campbell BM. 38.  2006. An operational model for implementing conservation action. Conserv. Biol. 20:2408–19 [Google Scholar]
  39. Sarkar S, Illoldi-Range P. 39.  2010. Systematic conservation planning: an updated protocol. Nat. Conserv. 8:119–26 [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP). 2013. Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation: Version 3.0 http://cmp-openstandards.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/CMP-OS-V3-0-Final.pdf
  41. Knight AT, Rodrigues ASL, Strange N, Tew T, Wilson KA. 41.  2013. Designing effective solutions to conservation planning problems. Key Topics in Conservation Biology 2 DW Macdonald, KJ Willis 362–83 Oxford: Wiley [Google Scholar]
  42. Wilson KA, Underwood EC, Morrison SA, Klausmeyer KR, Murdoch WW. 42.  et al. 2007. Conserving biodiversity efficiently: what to do, where, and when. PLOS Biol 5:9e223 [Google Scholar]
  43. Joseph LN, Maloney RF, Possingham HP. 43.  2009. Optimal allocation of resources among threatened species: a project prioritization protocol. Conserv. Biol. 23:2328–38 [Google Scholar]
  44. Leeuw F, Vaessen J. 44.  2009. Impact Evaluations and Development. NONIE Guidance on Impact Evaluation. Washington, DC: Netw. Netw. Impact Eval. (NONIE)
  45. Pressey RL, Visconti P, Ferraro PJ. 45.  2015. Making parks make a difference: poor alignment of policy, planning and management with protected-area impact, and ways forward. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 370:20140280 [Google Scholar]
  46. Laycock HF, Moran D, Raffaelli DG, White PCL. 46.  2013. Biological and operational determinants of the effectiveness and efficiency of biodiversity conservation programs. Wildl. Res. 40:2142–52 [Google Scholar]
  47. Ferraro PJ, Hanauer MM. 47.  2014. Advances in measuring the environmental and social impacts of environmental programs. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 39:495–517 [Google Scholar]
  48. Deaton A, Cartwright N. 48.  2016. Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials NBER Work. Pap. 22595. http://www.nber.org/papers/w22595
  49. White H. 49.  2009. Theory-Based Impact Evaluation: Principles and Practice New Delhi, India: Intl. Init. Impact Eval. (3ie)
  50. Margoluis R, Stem C, Swaminathan V, Brown M, Johnson A. 50.  et al. 2013. Results chains: a tool for conservation action design, management, and evaluation. Ecol. Soc. 18:322 [Google Scholar]
  51. Patton MQ. 51.  2008. Conceptualizing the intervention: alternatives for evaluating theories of change. Utilization-Focused Evaluation333–80 Saint Paul, MN: Sage Publ. Inc. , 4th ed.. [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) European Alpine Programme. 2005. Ecoregion Conservation Plan for the Alps Bellinzona, Switz.: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) http://www.wwf.at/de/view/files/download/showDownload/?tool=12&feld=download&sprach_connect=2657
  53. Fisher B, Balmford A, Ferraro PJ, Glew L, Mascia M. 53.  et al. 2014. Moving Rio forward and avoiding 10 more years with little evidence for effective conservation policy. Conserv. Biol. 28:3880–82 [Google Scholar]
  54. Knight AT, Cowling RM, Difford M, Campbell BM. 54.  2010. Mapping human and social dimensions of conservation opportunity for the scheduling of conservation action on private land. Conserv. Biol. 24:51348–58 [Google Scholar]
  55. Knight AT, Cowling RM, Boshoff AF, Wilson SL, Pierce SM. 55.  2011. Walking in STEP: lessons for linking spatial prioritisations to implementation strategies. Biol. Conserv. 144:1202–11 [Google Scholar]
  56. Raymond CM, Knight AT. 56.  2013. Applying social research techniques to improve the effectiveness of conservation planning. Bioscience 63:5320–21 [Google Scholar]
  57. Smith RJ, Veríssimo D, Leader-Williams N, Cowling RM, Knight AT. 57.  2009. Let the locals lead. Nature 462:7271280–81 [Google Scholar]
  58. Kullberg P, Moilanen A. 58.  2014. How do recent spatial biodiversity analyses support the convention on biological diversity in the expansion of the global conservation area network?. Nat. A Conserv. 12:13–10 [Google Scholar]
  59. Rogers PJ. 59.  2008. Using programme theory to evaluate complicated and complex aspects of interventions. Evaluation 14:129–48 [Google Scholar]
  60. Knight AT. 60.  2009. Is conservation biology ready to fail?. Conserv. Biol. 23:3517 [Google Scholar]
  61. Curzon HF, Kontoleon A. 61.  2016. From ignorance to evidence? The use of programme evaluation in conservation: evidence from a Delphi survey of conservation experts. J. Environ. Manag. 180:466–75 [Google Scholar]
  62. Geldmann J, Barnes M, Coad L, Craigie I, Hockings M, Burgess N. 62.  2013. Effectiveness of terrestrial protected areas in reducing biodiversity and habitat loss Review 10-007 Collab. Environ. Evid http://www.environmentalevidence.org/completed-reviews/effectiveness-of-terrestrial-protected-areas-in-reducing-biodiversity-and-habitat-loss
  63. Oldekop JA, Holmes G, Harris WE, Evans KL. 63.  2015. A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 30:1133–41 [Google Scholar]
  64. Schreckenberg K, Camargo I, Withnall K, Corrigan C, Franks P. 64.  et al. 2010. Social Assessment of Conservation Initiatives: A Review of Rapid Methodologies, Natural Resource Issues No. 22. London: Intl. Inst. Environ. Dev.
  65. Hockings M, Stolton S, Dudley N, Leverington F, Courrau J. 65.  2006. Evaluating Effectiveness: A Framework for Assessing Management of Protected Areas Gland, Switz./Cambridge, UK: IUCN, 2nd ed..
  66. Coad L, Leverington F, Knights K, Geldmann J, Eassom A. 66.  et al. 2015. Measuring impact of protected area management interventions: current and future use of the global database of protected area management effectiveness. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B. 370:Nov.20140281 [Google Scholar]
  67. Bergseth BJ, Russ GR, Cinner JE. 67.  2015. Measuring and monitoring compliance in no-take marine reserves. Fish Fish 16:2240–58 [Google Scholar]
  68. Cowling RM, Pressey RL, Sims-Castley R, Le Roux A, Baard E. 68.  et al. 2003. The expert or the algorithm? Comparison of priority conservation areas in the Cape Floristic Region identified by park managers and reserve selection software. Biol. Conserv. 112:1–2147–67 [Google Scholar]
  69. Biggs D, Abel N, Knight AT, Leitch A, Langston A, Ban NC. 69.  2011. The implementation crisis in conservation planning: Could “mental models” help?. Conserv. Lett. 4:3169–83 [Google Scholar]
  70. Bottrill MC, Mills M, Pressey RL, Game ET, Groves C. 70.  2012. Evaluating perceived benefits of ecoregional assessments. Conserv. Biol. 26:5851–61 [Google Scholar]
  71. Venter O, Fuller RA, Segan DB, Carwardine J, Brooks T. 71.  et al. 2014. Targeting global protected area expansion for imperiled biodiversity. PLOS Biol 12:6e1001891 [Google Scholar]
  72. Kuempel CD, Chauvenet ALM, Possingham HP. 72.  2016. Equitable representation of ecoregions is slowly improving despite strategic planning shortfalls. Conserv. Lett. 9:422–28 [Google Scholar]
  73. Visconti P, Bakkenes M, Smith RJ, Joppa L, Sykes RE. 73.  2015. Socio-economic and ecological impacts of global protected area expansion plans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 370:168120140284 [Google Scholar]
  74. Cowling R, Pressey R. 74.  2003. Introduction to systematic conservation planning in the Cape Floristic Region. Biol. Conserv. 112:1–21–13 [Google Scholar]
  75. Knight AT, Cowling RM, Possingham HP, Wilson KA. 75.  2009. From theory to practice: designing and situating spatial prioritization approaches to better implement conservation action. See Ref. 17 249–59
  76. Driver A, Cowling RM, Maze K. 76.  2003. Planning for Living Landscapes: Perspectives and Lessons from South Africa Cape Town, S. Afr.: Botanical Soc. S. Afr.
  77. Knight AT, Cowling RM. 77.  2007. Embracing opportunism in the selection of priority conservation areas. Conserv. Biol. 21:41124–26 [Google Scholar]
  78. Pressey RL, Bottrill MC. 78.  2008. Opportunism, threats, and the evolution of systematic conservation planning. Conserv. Biol. 22:51340–48 [Google Scholar]
  79. Di Marco M, Chapman S, Althor G, Kearney S, Besancon C. 79.  et al. 2017. Changing trends and persisting biases in three decades of conservation science. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 10:32–42 [Google Scholar]
  80. James KL, Randall NP, Haddaway NR. 80.  2016. A methodology for systematic mapping in environmental sciences. Environ. Evid. 5:17 [Google Scholar]
  81. Rittel HWJ, Webber MM. 81.  1973. Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sci 4:155–69 [Google Scholar]
  82. Game ET, Meijaard E, Sheil D, McDonald-Madden E. 82.  2014. Conservation in a wicked complex world; challenges and solutions. Conserv. Lett. 7:3271–77 [Google Scholar]
  83. Harrison T. 83.  2000. Urban policy: addressing wicked problems. What Works? Evidence-Based Policy and Practice in Public Services HTO Davies, SM Nutley, PC Smith 207–28 Bristol, UK: Policy Press [Google Scholar]
  84. Wendt HK, Weeks R, Comley J, Aalbersberg W. 84.  2016. Systematic conservation planning within a Fijian customary governance context. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 22:2173–81 [Google Scholar]
  85. Carter SK, Keuler NS, Pidgeon AM, Radeloff VC. 85.  2014. Evaluating the influence of conservation plans on land protection actions in Wisconsin, USA. Biol. Conserv. 178:37–49 [Google Scholar]
  86. Fisher JRB, Dills B. 86.  2012. Do private conservation activities match science-based conservation priorities?. PLOS ONE 7:9e46429 [Google Scholar]
  87. Knight AT. 87.  2006. Failing but learning: writing the wrongs after Redford and Taber. Conserv. Biol. 20:41312–14 [Google Scholar]
  88. Patton MQ. 88.  1994. Developmental evaluation. Am. J. Eval. 15:3311–19 [Google Scholar]
  89. Redford KH, Schwartz MW, Hulvey K. 89.  2014. Summative Evaluation Of Conservation Measures Partnership And Conservation Coaches Network To Strengthen Results-Based Management In Conservation Conserv. Coach. Net http://www.ccnetglobal.com/resource/summative-evaluation-of-conservation-measures-partnership-and-conservation-coaches-network-to-strengthen-results-based-management-in-conservation/
  90. Day J. 90.  2016. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park: the grandfather of modern MPAs. Big Bold Blue: Lessons from Australia's Marine Protected Areas J Fitzsimons, G Wescott 65–97 Clayton, Aust.: CSIRO Publ. [Google Scholar]
  91. Kapos V, Balmford A, Aveling R, Bubb P, Carey P. 91.  et al. 2008. Calibrating conservation: new tools for measuring success. Conserv. Lett. 1:4155–64 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060902
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060902
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error