1932

Abstract

Food digestion is crucial for sustaining life. Although it has been examined for more than 300 years, the basic principles are not entirely understood. Antral motility is well characterized, and current research is seeking to determine flow patterns generated by the stomach's peristaltic contractions. The rate of gastric emptying for solid and liquid meals has been determined according to variations in meal composition, energy content, and subject characteristics. The glycemic response has been measured for many carbohydrate foods and is altered by factors such as amount of processing, particle size, and starch structure. Similarly, ileal starch digestibility is altered by food and starch properties. Even though many foods have been studied according to their glycemic response, starch digestibility, and in vitro digestion kinetics, the rate-determining processes and underlying mechanisms remain to be established. The link between food properties, digestion processes, and final health outcomes must be strengthened for functional food optimization.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-food-030713-092346
2014-02-28
2024-04-25
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/food/5/1/annurev-food-030713-092346.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-food-030713-092346&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Agrawal KR, Lucas PW, Prinz JF, Bruce IC. 1997. Mechanical properties of foods responsible for resisting food breakdown in the human mouth. Arch. Oral Biol. 42:1–9 [Google Scholar]
  2. Ajaj W, Goehde SC, Papanikolaou N, Holtmann G, Ruehm SG. et al. 2004. Real time high resolution magnetic resonance imaging for the assessment of gastric motility disorders. Gut 53:1256–61 [Google Scholar]
  3. Bach Knudsen KE, Lærke HN, Steenfeldt S, Hedemann MS, Jørgensen H. 2006. In vivo methods to study the digestion of starch in pigs and poultry. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 130:114–35 [Google Scholar]
  4. Benini L, Brighenti F, Castellani G, Brentegani MT, Casiraghi MC. et al. 1994. Gastric emptying of solids is markedly delayed when meals are fried. Dig. Dis. Sci. 39:2288–94 [Google Scholar]
  5. Benini L, Castellani G, Brighenti F, Heaton KW, Brentegani MT. et al. 1995. Gastric emptying of a solid meal is accelerated by the removal of dietary fibre naturally present in food. Gut 36:825–30 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bering S, Bukhave K, Henriksen M, Sandström B, Pariagh S. et al. 2006. Development of a three-tier in vitro system, using Caco-2 cells, to assess the effects of lactate on iron uptake and transport from rye bread following in vitro digestion. J. Sci. Food Agric. 86:2438–44 [Google Scholar]
  7. Borgström B, Dahlqvist A, Lundh G, Sjövall J. 1957. Studies of intestinal digestion and absorption in the human. J. Clin. Investig. 36:1521–36 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bornhorst GM. 2012. Breakdown and mixing of brown and white rice during gastric digestion in vivo. PhD Dissertation, Univ. Calif., Davis
  9. Bornhorst GM, Chang LQ, Rutherfurd SM, Moughan PJ, Singh RP. 2013a. Gastric emptying rate and chyme characteristics for cooked brown and white rice meals in vivo. J. Sci. Food Agric. 93:122900–8Brown rice protein emptying was slower than white rice due to gastric accumulation of the outer bran layer. [Google Scholar]
  10. Bornhorst GM, Ferrua MJ, Rutherfurd SM, Heldman DR, Singh RP. 2013b. Rheological properties and textural attributes of cooked brown and white rice during gastric digestion in vivo. Food Biophys. 8:137–50 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bornhorst GM, Singh RP. 2012. Bolus formation and disintegration during digestion of food carbohydrates. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 11:101–18 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bornhorst GM, Singh RP. 2013. Kinetics of in vitro bread bolus digestion with varying oral and gastric digestion parameters. Food Biophys. 8:50–59 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bornhorst GM, Ströbinger N, Rutherfurd SM, Singh RP, Moughan PJ. 2013c. Properties of gastric chyme from pigs fed cooked brown or white rice. Food Biophys. 8:12–23 [Google Scholar]
  14. Botham RL, Cairns P, Faulks RM, Livesey G, Morris VJ. et al. 1997. Physicochemical characterization of barley carbohydrates resistant to digestion in a human ileostomate. Cereal Chem. J. 74:29–33 [Google Scholar]
  15. Brand JC, Nicholson PL, Thorburn AW, Truswell AS. 1985. Food processing and the glycemic index. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 42:1192–96For rice- and corn-based foods, those that were conventionally cooked had lower starch digestibility and GI compared to their processed counterparts. [Google Scholar]
  16. Brand Miller J, Pang E, Bramall L. 1992. Rice: a high or low glycemic index food?. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 56:1034–36 [Google Scholar]
  17. Camilleri M, Brown ML, Malagelada JR. 1986. Relationship between impaired gastric emptying and abnormal gastrointestinal motility. Gastroenterology 91:94–99 [Google Scholar]
  18. Camilleri M, Malagelada JR, Brown ML, Becker G, Zinsmeister AR. 1985. Relation between antral motility and gastric emptying of solids and liquids in humans. Am. J. Physiol.: Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 249:G580–85 [Google Scholar]
  19. Cannon WB. 1898. The movements of the stomach studied by means of Röntgen rays. Am. J. Physiol. 1:359–82 [Google Scholar]
  20. Cannon WB, Lieb CW. 1911. The receptive relaxation of the stomach. Am. J. Physiol. 29:267–73 [Google Scholar]
  21. Casiraghi MC, Brighenti F, Pellegrini N, Leopardi E, Testolin G. 1993. Effect of processing on rice starch digestibility evaluated by in vivo and in vitro methods. J. Cereal Sci. 17:147–56 [Google Scholar]
  22. Cassilly D, Kantor S, Knight LC, Maurer AH, Fisher RS. et al. 2008. Gastric emptying of a non-digestible solid: assessment with simultaneous SmartPill pH and pressure capsule, antroduodenal manometry, gastric emptying scintigraphy. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 20:311–19 [Google Scholar]
  23. Chapman RW, Sillery JK, Graham MM, Saunders DR. 1985. Absorption of starch by healthy ileostomates: effect of transit time and of carbohydrate load. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 41:1244–48 [Google Scholar]
  24. Collins PJ, Horowitz M, Maddox A, Myers JC, Chatterton BE. 1996. Effects of increasing solid component size of a mixed solid/liquid meal on solid and liquid gastric emptying. Am. J. Physiol.: Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 271:G549–54 [Google Scholar]
  25. Collins PJ, Houghton LA, Read NW, Horowitz M, Chatterton BE. et al. 1991. Role of the proximal and distal stomach in mixed solid and liquid meal emptying. Gut 32:615–19 [Google Scholar]
  26. Dawes C. 1972. Circadian rhythms in human salivary flow rate and composition. J. Physiol. 220:529–45 [Google Scholar]
  27. Dawes C, Watanabe S. 1987. The effect of taste adaptation on salivary flow rate and salivary sugar clearance. J. Dent. Res. 66:740–44 [Google Scholar]
  28. Decuypere JA, Vervaeke IJ, Henderickx HK, Dierick NA. 1977. Gastro-intestinal cannulation in pigs: a simple technique allowing multiple replacements. J. Anim. Sci. 45:463–68 [Google Scholar]
  29. Desipio J, Friedenberg FK, Korimilli A, Richter JE, Parkman HP, Fisher RS. 2007. High-resolution solid-state manometry of the antropyloroduodenal region. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 19:188–95 [Google Scholar]
  30. Dikeman CL, Barry KA, Murphy MR, Fahey JGC. 2007a. Diet and measurement techniques affect small intestinal digesta viscosity among dogs. Nutr. Res. 27:56–65 [Google Scholar]
  31. Dikeman CL, Murphy MR, Fahey GC. 2006. Dietary fibers affect viscosity of solutions and simulated human gastric and small intestinal digesta. J. Nutr. 136:913–19 [Google Scholar]
  32. Dikeman CL, Murphy MR, Fahey GC. 2007b. Diet type affects viscosity of ileal digesta of dogs and simulated gastric and small intestinal digesta. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 91:139–47 [Google Scholar]
  33. Dona AC, Pages G, Gilbert RG, Kuchel PW. 2010. Digestion of starch: in vivo and in vitro kinetic models used to characterise oligosaccharide or glucose release. Carbohydr. Polym. 80:599–617 [Google Scholar]
  34. Donkoh A, Moughan PJ, Smith WC. 1994. Comparison of the slaughter method and simple T-piece cannulation of the terminal ileum for determining ileal amino acid digestibility in meat and bone meal for the growing pig. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 49:43–56 [Google Scholar]
  35. Fadel JG, Newman CW, Newman RK, Graham H. 1988. Effects of extrusion cooking of barley on ileal and fecal digestibilities of dietary components in pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68:891–97 [Google Scholar]
  36. Ferrua MJ, Singh RP. 2010. Modeling the fluid dynamics in a human stomach to gain insight of food digestion. J. Food Sci. 75:R151–62 [Google Scholar]
  37. Foster-Powell K, Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC. 2002. International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76:5–56 [Google Scholar]
  38. Fuente J, Perez de Ayala P, Flores A, Villamide M. 1998. Effect of storage time and dietary enzyme on the metabolizable energy and digesta viscosity of barley-based diets for poultry. Poult. Sci. 77:90–97 [Google Scholar]
  39. Gallier S, Singh H. 2012a. Behavior of almond oil bodies during in vitro gastric and intestinal digestion. Food Funct. 3:5547–55 [Google Scholar]
  40. Gallier S, Singh H. 2012b. The physical and chemical structure of lipids in relation to digestion and absorption. Lipid Technol. 24:271–73 [Google Scholar]
  41. Gavião MBD, van der Bilt A. 2004. Salivary secretion and chewing: stimulatory effects from artificial and natural foods. J. Appl. Oral Sci. 12:159–63 [Google Scholar]
  42. Glahn RP, Lai C, Hsu J, Thompson JF, Guo M, Van Campen DR. 1998. Decreased citrate improves iron availability from infant formula: application of an in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell culture model. J. Nutr. 128:257–64 [Google Scholar]
  43. Goddard M, Young G, Marcus R. 1984. The effect of amylose content on insulin and glucose responses to ingested rice. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 39:388–92 [Google Scholar]
  44. Golding M, Wooster TJ. 2010. The influence of emulsion structure and stability on lipid digestion. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 15:90–101 [Google Scholar]
  45. Gonzalez R, Montoya I, Benedito J, Rey A. 2004. Variables influencing chewing electromyography response in food texture evaluation. Food Rev. Int. 20:17–32 [Google Scholar]
  46. Granfeldt Y, Liljeberg H, Drews A, Newman R, Björck I. 1994. Glucose and insulin responses to barley products: influence of food structure and amylose-amylopectin ratio. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 59:1075–82 [Google Scholar]
  47. Gregory PC, Mcfadyen M, Rayner DV. 1990. Pattern of gastric emptying in the pig: relation to feeding. Br. J. Nutr. 64:45–58 [Google Scholar]
  48. Guerra A, Etienne-Mesmin L, Livrelli V, Denis S, Blanquet-Diot S, Alric M. 2012. Relevance and challenges in modeling human gastric and small intestinal digestion. Trends Biotechnol. 30:591–600 [Google Scholar]
  49. Hallfrisch J, Behall KM. 2000. Mechanisms of the effects of grains on insulin and glucose responses. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 19:320S–25S [Google Scholar]
  50. Hebbard GS, Reid K, Sun WM, Horowitz M, Dent J. 1995. Postural changes in proximal gastric volume and pressure measured using a gastric barostat. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 7:169–74 [Google Scholar]
  51. Heddle R, Collins PJ, Dent J, Horowitz M, Read NW. et al. 1989. Motor mechanisms associated with slowing of the gastric emptying of a solid meal by an intraduodenal lipid infusion. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 4:437–47 [Google Scholar]
  52. Heddle R, Miedema BW, Kelly KA. 1993. Integration of canine proximal gastric, antral, pyloric, and proximal duodenal motility during fasting and after a liquid meal. Dig. Dis. Sci. 38:856–69 [Google Scholar]
  53. Hermansson G, Sivertsson R. 1996. Gender-related differences in gastric emptying rate of solid meals. Dig. Dis. Sci. 41:1994–98 [Google Scholar]
  54. Hertz AF. 1910. The motor functions of the stomach. Q. J. Med. 176:373–94 [Google Scholar]
  55. Heuman DM, Mills AS, McGuire HH Jr. 1997. Gastroenterology. Philadelphia: Saunders
  56. Hoad CL, Marciani L, Foley S, Totman JJ, Wright J. et al. 2007. Non-invasive quantification of small bowel water content by MRI: a validation study. Phys. Med. Biol. 52:236909–22 [Google Scholar]
  57. Holm J, Lundquist I, Björck I, Eliasson A, Asp N. 1988. Degree of starch gelatinization, digestion rate of starch in vitro, and metabolic response in rats. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 47:1010–16 [Google Scholar]
  58. Hunt JN, Knox MT. 1969. The slowing of gastric emptying by nine acids. J. Physiol. 201:161–79 [Google Scholar]
  59. Hur SJ, Lim BO, Decker EA, McClements DJ. 2011. In vitro human digestion models for food applications. Food Chem. 125:1–12 [Google Scholar]
  60. Jalabert-Malbos M-L, Mishellany-Dutour A, Woda A, Peyron M-A. 2007. Particle size distribution in the food bolus after mastication of natural foods. Food Q. Prefer. 18:803–12 [Google Scholar]
  61. Jenkins D, Wolever T, Jenkins A, Giordano C, Giudici S. et al. 1986. Low glycemic response to traditionally processed wheat and rye products: bulgur and pumpernickel bread. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 43:516–20 [Google Scholar]
  62. Jenkins D, Wolever T, Taylor R, Barker H, Fielden H. et al. 1981. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:362–66 [Google Scholar]
  63. Jenkins DJ, Wesson V, Wolever TM, Jenkins AL, Kalmusky J. et al. 1988. Wholemeal versus wholegrain breads: proportion of whole or cracked grain and the glycaemic response. BMJ 297:958–60Barley and wheat bread GI was reduced by addition of whole grain kernels to bread. [Google Scholar]
  64. Josse AR, Kendall CWC, Augustin LSA, Ellis PR, Jenkins DJA. 2007. Almonds and postprandial glycemia—a dose-response study. Metabolism 56:400–4 [Google Scholar]
  65. Kamba M, Seta Y, Takeda N, Hamaura T, Kusai A. et al. 2003. Measurement of agitation force in dissolution test and mechanical destructive force in disintegration test. Int. J. Pharm. 250:99–109 [Google Scholar]
  66. Kendall CWC, Esfahani A, Josse AR, Augustin LSA, Vidgen E, Jenkins DJA. 2011. The glycemic effect of nut-enriched meals in healthy and diabetic subjects. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 21:Suppl. 1S34–39 [Google Scholar]
  67. Kim JC, Mullan BP, Hampson DJ, Rijnen MMJA, Pluske JR. 2007. The digestible energy and net energy content of two varieties of processed rice in pigs of different body weight. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 134:316–25 [Google Scholar]
  68. Kloetzer L, Chey WD, McCallum RW, Koch KL, Wo JM. et al. 2010. Motility of the antroduodenum in healthy and gastroparetics characterized by wireless motility capsule. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 22:527–33 [Google Scholar]
  69. Kong F, Singh RP. 2009. Modes of disintegration of solid foods in simulated gastric environment. Food Biophys. 4:180–90 [Google Scholar]
  70. Kong F, Singh RP. 2010. A human gastric simulator (HGS) to study food digestion in human stomach. J. Food Sci. 75:E627–35 [Google Scholar]
  71. Kristensen M, Jensen MG, Riboldi G, Petronio M, Bügel S. et al. 2010. Wholegrain versus refined wheat bread and pasta. Effect on postprandial glycemia, appetite, and subsequent ad libitum energy intake in young healthy adults. Appetite 54:163–69 [Google Scholar]
  72. Krul C, Luiten-Schuite A, Baan R, Verhagen H, Mohn G. et al. 2000. Application of a dynamic in vitro gastrointestinal tract model to study the availability of food mutagens, using heterocyclic aromatic amines as model compounds. Food Chem. Toxicol. 38:783–92 [Google Scholar]
  73. Kunz P, Feinle C, Schwizer W, Fried M, Boesiger P. 1999. Assessment of gastric motor function during the emptying of solid and liquid meals in humans by MRI. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 9:75–80 [Google Scholar]
  74. Kwiatek MA, Menne D, Steingoetter A, Goetze O, Forras-Kaufman Z. et al. 2009. Effect of meal volume and calorie load on postprandial gastric function and emptying: studies under physiological conditions by combined fiber-optic pressure measurement and MRI. Am. J. Physiol.: Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 297:G894–901Gastric emptying was decreased by increasing meal calories and increased by increasing meal volume (at fixed calories). [Google Scholar]
  75. Kwiatek MA, Steingoetter A, Pal A, Menne D, Brasseur JG. et al. 2006. Quantification of distal antral contractile motility in healthy human stomach with magnetic resonance imaging. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 24:1101–9 [Google Scholar]
  76. Laulicht B, Tripathi A, Schlageter V, Kucera P, Mathiowitz E. 2010. Understanding gastric forces calculated from high-resolution pill tracking. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107:8201–6 [Google Scholar]
  77. Liljeberg H, Björck I. 1996. Delayed gastric emptying rate as a potential mechanism for lowered glycemia after eating sourdough bread: studies in humans and rats using test products with added organic acids or an organic salt. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 64:886–93 [Google Scholar]
  78. Liljeberg H, Björck I. 1998. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycaemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 52:368–71 [Google Scholar]
  79. Lin HC, Doty JE, Reedy TJ, Meyer JH. 1990. Inhibition of gastric emptying by acids depends on pH, titratable acidity, and length of intestine exposed to acid. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 259:G1025–30 [Google Scholar]
  80. Lucas PW, Prinz JF, Agrawal KR, Bruce IC. 2004. Food texture and its effect on ingestion, mastication and swallowing. J. Texture Stud. 35:159–70 [Google Scholar]
  81. Mahasukhonthachat K, Sopade PA, Gidley MJ. 2010. Kinetics of starch digestion in sorghum as affected by particle size. J. Food Eng. 96:18–28 [Google Scholar]
  82. Mandalari G, Faulks R, Rich GT, Lo Turco V, Picout DR. et al. 2008. Release of protein, lipid, and vitamin E from almond seeds during digestion. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:3409–16 [Google Scholar]
  83. Marciani L, Gowland PA, Fillery-Travis A, Manoj P, Wright J. et al. 2001a. Assessment of antral grinding of a model solid meal with echo-planar imaging. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 280:G844–49 [Google Scholar]
  84. Marciani L, Gowland PA, Spiller RC, Manoj P, Moore RJ. et al. 2001b. Effect of meal viscosity and nutrients on satiety, intragastric dilution, and emptying assessed by MRI. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 280:G1227–33Meals with high viscosity were not immediately mixed and diluted with gastric acid. [Google Scholar]
  85. Marciani L, Young P, Wright J, Moore R, Coleman N. et al. 2001c. Antral motility measurements by magnetic resonance imaging. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 13:511–18 [Google Scholar]
  86. McClements D, Decker E, Park Y, Weiss J. 2008. Designing food structure to control stability, digestion, release and absorption of lipophilic food components. Food Biophys. 3:219–28 [Google Scholar]
  87. McLeod R, Lavery I, Leatherman J, Maryland P, Fazio V. et al. 1985. Patient evaluation of the conventional ileostomy. Dis. Colon Rectum 28:152–54 [Google Scholar]
  88. Meyer JH. 1980. Gastric emptying of ordinary food: effect of antrum on particle size. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 239:G133–35 [Google Scholar]
  89. Mioche L, Bourdiol P, Monier S, Martin J-F. 2002. The relationship between chewing activity and food bolus properties obtained from different meat textures. Food Q. Prefer. 13:583–88 [Google Scholar]
  90. Moore JG, Christian PE, Brown JA, Brophy C, Datz F. et al. 1984. Influence of meal weight and caloric content on gastric emptying of meals in man. Dig. Dis. Sci. 29:513–19 [Google Scholar]
  91. Moore JG, Christian PE, Coleman RE. 1981. Gastric emptying of varying meal weight and composition in man: evaluation by dual liquid- and solid-phase isotopic method. Dig. Dis. Sci. 26:16–22 [Google Scholar]
  92. Moore JG, Datz FL, Christian PE. 1990. Exercise increases solid meal gastric emptying rates in men. Dig. Dis. Sci. 35:428–32 [Google Scholar]
  93. O'Dea K, Nestel P, Antonoff L. 1980. Physical factors influencing postprandial glucose and insulin responses to starch. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 33:760–65 [Google Scholar]
  94. Owsley WF, Knabe DA, Tanksley TD. 1981. Effect of sorghum particle size on digestibility of nutrients at the terminal ileum and over the total digestive tract of growing-finishing pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 52:557–66 [Google Scholar]
  95. Pal A, Brasseur JG, Abrahamsson B. 2007. A stomach road or “Magenstrasse” for gastric emptying. J. Biomech. 40:1202–10 [Google Scholar]
  96. Pal A, Indireshkumar K, Schwizer W, Abrahamsson B, Fried M, Brasseur JG. 2004. Gastric flow and mixing studied using computer simulation. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B: Biol. Sci. 271:2587–94 [Google Scholar]
  97. Panlasigui L, Thompson L, Juliano B, Perez C, Yiu S, Greenberg G. 1991. Rice varieties with similar amylose content differ in starch digestibility and glycemic response in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54:871–77 [Google Scholar]
  98. Parada J, Aguilera JM. 2011. Review: starch matrices and the glycemic response. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 17:187–204 [Google Scholar]
  99. Peyron M-A, Mishellany A, Woda A. 2004. Particle size distribution of food boluses after mastication of six natural foods. J. Dent. Res. 83:578–82 [Google Scholar]
  100. Pluske JR, Montagne L, Cavaney FS, Mullan BP, Pethick DW, Hampson DJ. 2007. Feeding different types of cooked white rice to piglets after weaning influences starch digestion, digesta and fermentation characteristics and the faecal shedding of β-haemolytic Escherichia coli. Br. J. Nutr. 97:298–306 [Google Scholar]
  101. Prinz JF, Janssen AM, de Wijk RA. 2007. In vitro simulation of the oral processing of semi-solid foods. Food Hydrocoll. 21:397–401 [Google Scholar]
  102. Rainbird AL, Low AG. 1986. Effect of guar gum on gastric emptying in growing pigs. Br. J. Nutr. 55:87–98 [Google Scholar]
  103. Ranawana DV, Henry CJK, Lightowler HJ, Wang D. 2009. Glycaemic index of some commercially available rice and rice products in Great Britain. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 60:99–110 [Google Scholar]
  104. Ranawana V, Clegg ME, Shafat A, Henry CJ. 2011. Postmastication digestion factors influence glycemic variability in humans. Nutr. Res. 31:452–59 [Google Scholar]
  105. Ranawana V, Henry CJK, Pratt M. 2010a. Degree of habitual mastication seems to contribute to interindividual variations in the glycemic response to rice but not to spaghetti. Nutr. Res. 30:382–91 [Google Scholar]
  106. Ranawana V, Monro JA, Mishra S, Henry CJK. 2010b. Degree of particle size breakdown during mastication may be a possible cause of interindividual glycemic variability. Nutr. Res. 30:246–54 [Google Scholar]
  107. Read NW, Welch IM, Austen CJ, Barnish C, Bartlett CE. et al. 1986. Swallowing food without chewing; a simple way to reduce postprandial glycaemia. Br. J. Nutr. 55:43–47 [Google Scholar]
  108. Roman MJ, Burri BJ, Singh RP. 2012. Release and bioaccessibility of β-carotene from fortified almond butter during in vitro digestion. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60:9659–66 [Google Scholar]
  109. Rutherfurd SM, Montoya CA, Zou ML, Moughan PJ, Drummond LN, Boland MJ. 2011. Effect of actinidin from kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv. Hayward) on the digestion of food proteins determined in the growing rat. Food Chem. 129:1681–89 [Google Scholar]
  110. Scazzina F, Del Rio D, Pellegrini N, Brighenti F. 2009. Sourdough bread: starch digestibility and postprandial glycemic response. J. Cereal Sci. 49:419–21 [Google Scholar]
  111. Schulze K. 2006. Imaging and modelling of digestion in the stomach and the duodenum. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18:3172–83 [Google Scholar]
  112. Schwizer W, Fraser R, Borovicka J, Asal K, Crelier G. et al. 1996. Measurement of proximal and distal gastric motility with magnetic resonance imaging. Am. J. Physiol.: Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 271:G217–22 [Google Scholar]
  113. Seidel E, Long M. 2006. Crash Course: Gastrointestinal System Philadelphia: Elsevier
  114. Sernka T, Jacobson E. 1979. Gastrointestinal Physiology: The Essentials Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins
  115. Short FJ, Gorton P, Wiseman J, Boorman KN. 1996. Determination of titanium dioxide added as an inert marker in chicken digestibility studies. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 59:215–21 [Google Scholar]
  116. Siegel JA, Urbain JL, Adler LP, Charkes ND, Maurer AH. et al. 1988. Biphasic nature of gastric emptying. Gut 29:85–89Gastric emptying is best characterized by both a lag time and an emptying rate. [Google Scholar]
  117. Singh J, Dartois A, Kaur L. 2010. Starch digestibility in food matrix: a review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 21:168–80 [Google Scholar]
  118. Singh SK. 2007. Fluid Flow and Disintegration of Food in Human Stomach PhD Dissertation, Univ. Calif., Davis
  119. Solà-Oriol D, Roura E, Torrallardona D. 2007. Pig preference for cereal based diets, relationship with their digestibility and physical properties. Livest. Sci. 108:190–93 [Google Scholar]
  120. Spiller RC, Trotman IF, Higgins BE, Ghatei MA, Grimble GK. et al. 1984. The ileal brake—inhibition of jejunal motility after ileal fat perfusion in man. Gut 25:365–74 [Google Scholar]
  121. Sun T, Lærke HN, Jørgensen H, Knudsen KEB. 2006. The effect of extrusion cooking of different starch sources on the in vitro and in vivo digestibility in growing pigs. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 131:67–86 [Google Scholar]
  122. Szarka LA, Camilleri M. 2009. Methods for measurement of gastric motility. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 296:G461–75 [Google Scholar]
  123. Treacy PJ, Jamieson GG, Dent J. 1990. Pyloric motor function during emptying of a liquid meal from the stomach in the conscious pig. J. Physiol. 422:523–38 [Google Scholar]
  124. Van Buggenhout S, Ahrné L, Alminger M, Andrys A, Benjamin M. et al. 2012. Structural design of natural plant-based foods to promote nutritional quality. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 24:47–59 [Google Scholar]
  125. van Bussel W, Kerkhof F, van Kessel T, Lamers H, Nous D. 2010. Accurate determination of titanium as titanium dioxide for limited sample size digestibility studies of feed and food matrices by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry with real-time simultaneous internal standardization. Atomic Spectrosc. 31:81–88 [Google Scholar]
  126. Van Citters G, Lin H. 1999. The ileal brake: a fifteen-year progress report. Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep. 1:404–9 [Google Scholar]
  127. Vantrappen G. 1994. Methods to study gastric emptying. Dig. Dis. Sci. 39:89S–94S [Google Scholar]
  128. Vardakou M, Mercuri A, Barker S, Craig D, Faulks R, Wickham M. 2011. Achieving antral grinding forces in biorelevant in vitro models: comparing the USP dissolution apparatus II and the dynamic gastric model with human in vivo data. AAPS Pharm. Sci. Tech. 12:620–26 [Google Scholar]
  129. Vega-López S, Ausman LM, Griffith JL, Lichtenstein AH. 2007. Interindividual variability and intra-individual reproducibility of glycemic index values for commercial white bread. Diabetes Care 30:1412–17 [Google Scholar]
  130. Verwei M, Arkbage K, Havenaar R, van den Berg H, Witthoft C, Schaafsma G. 2003. Folic acid and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate in fortified milk are bioaccessible as determined in a dynamic in vitro gastrointestinal model. J. Nutr. 133:2377–83 [Google Scholar]
  131. Weurding RE, Veldman A, Veen WAG, van der Aar PJ, Verstegen MWA. 2001. Starch digestion rate in the small intestine of broiler chickens differs among feedstuffs. J. Nutr. 131:2329–35 [Google Scholar]
  132. Woda A, Mishellany A, Peyron M-A. 2006. The regulation of masticatory function and food bolus formation. J. Oral Rehabil. 33:840–49 [Google Scholar]
  133. Wolever T, Jenkins D, Jenkins A, Josse R. 1991. The glycemic index: methodology and clinical implications. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54:846–54 [Google Scholar]
  134. Yurkstas AA. 1965. The masticatory act: a review. J. Prosthet. Dent. 15:248–60 [Google Scholar]
  135. Zhao Z, Egashira Y, Sanada H. 2003. Digestion and absorption of ferulic acid sugar esters in rat gastrointestinal tract. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:5534–39 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-food-030713-092346
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-food-030713-092346
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error