1932

Abstract

Obesity is a chronic and complex medical condition associated with a large number of complications affecting most organs and systems through multiple pathways. Strategies for weight management include behavioral, pharmacological, and surgical interventions, all of which can result in a reduction in obesity-related comorbidities and improvements in quality of life. However, subsequent weight regain often reduces the durability of these improvements. The objective of this article is to review evidence supporting the long-term effects of intentional weight loss on morbidity, mortality, quality of life, and health-care cost. Overall, considerable evidence suggests that intentional weight loss is associated with clinically relevant benefits for the majority of obesity-related comorbidities. However, the degree of weight loss that must be achieved and sustained to reap these benefits varies widely between comorbidities.

Keyword(s): bariatricbypassdietobesityoutcomes
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071714-034434
2015-07-17
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/nutr/35/1/annurev-nutr-071714-034434.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071714-034434&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aaron SD, Fergusson D, Dent R, Chen Y, Vandemheen KL, Dales RE. 1.  2004. Effect of weight reduction on respiratory function and airway reactivity in obese women. Chest 125:2046–52 [Google Scholar]
  2. Aasheim ET, Aylwin SJB, Radhakrishnan ST, Sood AS, Jovanovic A. 2.  et al. 2011. Assessment of obesity beyond body mass index to determine benefit of treatment. Clin. Obes. 1:77–84 [Google Scholar]
  3. Acosta A, Abu Dayyeh BK, Port JD, Camilleri M. 3.  2014. Recent advances in clinical practice challenges and opportunities in the management of obesity. Gut 63:687–95 [Google Scholar]
  4. Adams TD, Gress RE, Smith SC, Halverson RC, Simper SC. 4.  et al. 2007. Long-term mortality after gastric bypass surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. 357:753–61 [Google Scholar]
  5. Ades PA, Savage PD. 5.  2010. The obesity paradox: perception versus knowledge. Mayo Clin. Proc. 85:112–14 [Google Scholar]
  6. Amaral JF, Thompson WR. 6.  1985. Gallbladder disease in the morbidly obese. Am. J. Surg. 149:551–57 [Google Scholar]
  7. Araghi MH, Chen YF, Jagielski A, Choudhury S, Banerjee D. 7.  et al. 2013. Effectiveness of lifestyle interventions on obstructive sleep apnea (OSA): systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep 36:1553–62 [Google Scholar]
  8. Astrup A, Carraro R, Finer N, Harper A, Kunesova M. 8.  et al. 2012. Safety, tolerability and sustained weight loss over 2 years with the once-daily human GLP-1 analog, liraglutide. Int. J. Obes. 36:843–54 [Google Scholar]
  9. Aucott L, Poobalan A, Smith WC, Avenell A, Jung R, Broom J. 9.  2005. Effects of weight loss in overweight/obese individuals and long-term hypertension outcomes: a systematic review. Hypertension 45:1035–41 [Google Scholar]
  10. Aucott L, Rothnie H, McIntyre L, Thapa M, Waweru C, Gray D. 10.  2009. Long-term weight loss from lifestyle intervention benefits blood pressure? A systematic review. Hypertension 54:756–62 [Google Scholar]
  11. Barbosa-da-Silva S, Fraulob-Aquino JC, Lopes JR, Mandarim-de-Lacerda CA, Aguila MB. 11.  2012. Weight cycling enhances adipose tissue inflammatory responses in male mice. PLOS ONE 7:e39837 [Google Scholar]
  12. Belle SH, Berk PD, Courcoulas AP, Flum DR, Miles CW. 12.  et al. 2007. Safety and efficacy of bariatric surgery: Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 3:116–26 [Google Scholar]
  13. Bergman RN, Stefanovski D, Buchanan TA, Sumner AE, Reynolds JC. 13.  et al. 2011. A better index of body adiposity. Obesity 19:1083–89 [Google Scholar]
  14. Beuther DA, Sutherland ER. 14.  2007. Overweight, obesity, and incident asthma: a meta-analysis of prospective epidemiologic studies. Am. J. Respirat. Crit. Care Med. 175:661–66 [Google Scholar]
  15. Bielefeldt K. 15.  2014. Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy for diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 371:681–82 [Google Scholar]
  16. Birks S, Peeters A, Backholer K, O'Brien P, Brown W. 16.  2012. A systematic review of the impact of weight loss on cancer incidence and mortality. Obes. Rev. 13:868–91 [Google Scholar]
  17. Bish CL, Michels Blanck H, Maynard LM, Serdula MK, Thompson NJ, Kettel Khan L. 17.  2006. Health-related quality of life and weight loss among overweight and obese U.S. adults, 2001 to 2002. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:2042–53 [Google Scholar]
  18. Blagojevic M, Jinks C, Jeffery A, Jordan KP. 18.  2010. Risk factors for onset of osteoarthritis of the knee in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 18:24–33 [Google Scholar]
  19. Blaine BE, Rodman J, Newman JM. 19.  2007. Weight loss treatment and psychological well-being: a review and meta-analysis. J. Health Psychol. 12:66–82 [Google Scholar]
  20. Bliddal H, Leeds AR, Stigsgaard L, Astrup A, Christensen R. 20.  2011. Weight loss as treatment for knee osteoarthritis symptoms in obese patients: 1-year results from a randomised controlled trial. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 70:1798–803 [Google Scholar]
  21. Bluher M. 21.  2010. The distinction of metabolically “healthy” from “unhealthy” obese individuals. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 21:38–43 [Google Scholar]
  22. Bond DS, Phelan S, Leahey TM, Hill JO, Wing RR. 22.  2009. Weight-loss maintenance in successful weight losers: surgical versus non-surgical methods. Int. J. Obes. 33:173–80 [Google Scholar]
  23. Bonfrate L, Wang DQ, Garruti G, Portincasa P. 23.  2014. Obesity and the risk and prognosis of gallstone disease and pancreatitis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 28:623–35 [Google Scholar]
  24. Boots C, Stephenson MD. 24.  2011. Does obesity increase the risk of miscarriage in spontaneous conception: a systematic review. Semin. Reprod. Med. 29:507–13 [Google Scholar]
  25. Bosomworth NJ. 25.  2012. The downside of weight loss: realistic intervention in body-weight trajectory. Can. Fam. Physician 58:517–23 [Google Scholar]
  26. Burgio KL, Richter HE, Clements RH, Redden DT, Goode PS. 26.  2007. Changes in urinary and fecal incontinence symptoms with weight loss surgery in morbidly obese women. Obstet. Gynecol. 110:1034–40 [Google Scholar]
  27. Byers T, Sedjo RL. 27.  2011. Does intentional weight loss reduce cancer risk?. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 13:1063–72 [Google Scholar]
  28. Calhoun R, Willbanks O. 28.  1987. Coexistence of gallbladder disease and morbid obesity. Am. J. Surg. 154:655–58 [Google Scholar]
  29. Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. 29.  2003. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:1625–38 [Google Scholar]
  30. Carey VJ, Walters EE, Colditz GA, Solomon CG, Willett WC. 30.  et al. 1997. Body fat distribution and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. The Nurses' Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 145:614–19 [Google Scholar]
  31. Casagrande DS, Rosa DD, Umpierre D, Sarmento RA, Rodrigues CG, Schaan BD. 31.  2014. Incidence of cancer following bariatric surgery: systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Surg. 24:1499–509 [Google Scholar]
  32. Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. 32.  1994. Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 17:961–69 [Google Scholar]
  33. Chang SH, Stoll CR, Song J, Varela JE, Eagon CJ, Colditz GA. 33.  2014. The effectiveness and risks of bariatric surgery: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis, 2003–2012. JAMA Surg. 149:275–87 [Google Scholar]
  34. Charakida M, Khan T, Johnson W, Finer N, Woodside J. 34.  et al. 2014. Lifelong patterns of BMI and cardiovascular phenotype in individuals aged 60–64 years in the 1946 British birth cohort study: an epidemiological study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2:648–54 [Google Scholar]
  35. Chau EH, Lam D, Wong J, Mokhlesi B, Chung F. 35.  2012. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: a review of epidemiology, pathophysiology, and perioperative considerations. Anesthesiology 117:188–205 [Google Scholar]
  36. Chen Y, Lee K. 36.  2014. Weight loss and cancer risk reduction. J. Cancer Res. Pract. 30:3–10 [Google Scholar]
  37. Cheung BM, Cheung TT, Samaranayake NR. 37.  2013. Safety of antiobesity drugs. Ther. Adv. Drug Saf. 4:171–81 [Google Scholar]
  38. Cho JY, Chung TH, Lim KM, Park HJ, Jang JM. 38.  2014. The impact of weight changes on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in adult men with normal weight. Korean J. Fam. Med. 35:243–50 [Google Scholar]
  39. Christensen R, Bartels EM, Astrup A, Bliddal H. 39.  2007. Effect of weight reduction in obese patients diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66:433–39 [Google Scholar]
  40. Christou NV, Lieberman M, Sampalis F, Sampalis JS. 40.  2008. Bariatric surgery reduces cancer risk in morbidly obese patients. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 4:691–95 [Google Scholar]
  41. Clark AM, Ledger W, Galletly C, Tomlinson L, Blaney F. 41.  et al. 1995. Weight loss results in significant improvement in pregnancy and ovulation rates in anovulatory obese women. Hum. Reprod. 10:2705–12 [Google Scholar]
  42. Clark JM. 42.  2006. Weight loss as a treatment for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 40:Suppl. 1S39–43 [Google Scholar]
  43. Clegg AJ, Colquitt J, Sidhu MK, Royle P, Loveman E, Walker A. 43.  2002. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of surgery for people with morbid obesity: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol. Assess. 6:1–153 [Google Scholar]
  44. Colak Y, Marott JL, Vestbo J, Lange P. 44.  2014. Overweight and obesity may lead to under-diagnosis of airflow limitation: findings from the Copenhagen City Heart Study. COPD 12:5–13 [Google Scholar]
  45. Colman E. 45.  2012. Food and Drug Administration's Obesity Drug Guidance Document: a short history. Circulation 125:2156–64 [Google Scholar]
  46. Cornell S, D'Souza J. 46.  2014. Pharmacotherapy considerations in diabetes and obesity: setting patients up for success. Postgrad. Med. 126:100–9 [Google Scholar]
  47. Corona G, Rastrelli G, Monami M, Saad F, Luconi M. 47.  et al. 2013. Body weight loss reverts obesity-associated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 168:829–43 [Google Scholar]
  48. Courcoulas AP, Christian NJ, Belle SH, Berk PD, Flum DR. 48.  et al. 2013. Weight change and health outcomes at 3 years after bariatric surgery among individuals with severe obesity. JAMA 310:2416–25 [Google Scholar]
  49. Cremieux PY, Ledoux S, Clerici C, Cremieux F, Buessing M. 49.  2010. The impact of bariatric surgery on comorbidities and medication use among obese patients. Obes. Surg. 20:861–70 [Google Scholar]
  50. Crow S, Eisenberg ME, Story M, Neumark-Sztainer D. 50.  2008. Suicidal behavior in adolescents: relationship to weight status, weight control behaviors, and body dissatisfaction. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 41:82–87 [Google Scholar]
  51. Dankel SN, Degerud EM, Borkowski K, Fjaere E, Midtbo LK. 51.  et al. 2014. Weight cycling promotes fat gain and altered clock gene expression in adipose tissue in C57BL/6J mice. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 306:E210–24 [Google Scholar]
  52. Despres JP. 52.  2011. Excess visceral adipose tissue/ectopic fat: the missing link in the obesity paradox?. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 57:1887–89 [Google Scholar]
  53. Dixon JB, Bhathal PS, Hughes NR, O'Brien PE. 53.  2004. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: improvement in liver histological analysis with weight loss. Hepatology 39:1647–54 [Google Scholar]
  54. Dixon JB, Schachter LM, O'Brien PE, Jones K, Grima M. 54.  et al. 2012. Surgical versus conventional therapy for weight loss treatment of obstructive sleep apnea: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 308:1142–49 [Google Scholar]
  55. Duvnjak M, Tomasic V, Gomercic M, Smircic Duvnjak L, Barsic N, Lerotic I. 55.  2009. Therapy of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: current status. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 60:Suppl. 757–66 [Google Scholar]
  56. Elovainio M, Shipley MJ, Ferrie JE, Gimeno D, Vahtera J. 56.  et al. 2009. Obesity, unexplained weight loss and suicide: the original Whitehall study. J. Affect. Disord. 116:218–21 [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. Exam. Comm. Criteria Obesity Dis. Jpn., Jpn. Soc. Study Obesity 2002. New criteria for “obesity disease” in Japan. Circ. J. 66:987–92 [Google Scholar]
  58. Fakhouri TH, Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. 58.  2012. Prevalence of obesity among older adults in the United States, 2007–2010. NCHS Data Brief 106:1–8 [Google Scholar]
  59. Fine JT, Colditz GA, Coakley EH, Moseley G, Manson JE. 59.  et al. 1999. A prospective study of weight change and health-related quality of life in women. JAMA 282:2136–42 [Google Scholar]
  60. Finkelstein EA, Trogdon JG, Cohen JW, Dietz W. 60.  2009. Annual medical spending attributable to obesity: payer- and service-specific estimates. Health Aff. (Millwood) 28:w822–31 [Google Scholar]
  61. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR. 61.  2010. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2008. JAMA 303:235–41 [Google Scholar]
  62. Ford ES. 62.  2005. The epidemiology of obesity and asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 115:897–909 [Google Scholar]
  63. Ford ES, Williamson DF, Liu S. 63.  1997. Weight change and diabetes incidence: findings from a national cohort of US adults. Am. J. Epidemiol. 146:214–22 [Google Scholar]
  64. Franssen FM, O'Donnell DE, Goossens GH, Blaak EE, Schols AM. 64.  2008. Obesity and the lung: 5. Obesity and COPD. Thorax 63:1110–17 [Google Scholar]
  65. Franz MJ, VanWormer JJ, Crain AL, Boucher JL, Histon T. 65.  et al. 2007. Weight-loss outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of weight-loss clinical trials with a minimum 1-year follow-up. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 107:1755–67 [Google Scholar]
  66. French SA, Folsom AR, Jeffery RW, Williamson DF. 66.  1999. Prospective study of intentionality of weight loss and mortality in older women: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 149:504–14 [Google Scholar]
  67. Gallagher D, Visser M, Sepulveda D, Pierson RN, Harris T, Heymsfield SB. 67.  1996. How useful is body mass index for comparison of body fatness across age, sex, and ethnic groups?. Am. J. Epidemiol. 143:228–39 [Google Scholar]
  68. Garber AJ, Abrahamson MJ, Barzilay JI, Blonde L, Bloomgarden ZT. 68.  et al. 2013. AACE comprehensive diabetes management algorithm 2013. Endocr. Pract. 19:327–36 [Google Scholar]
  69. Garcia-Rio F, Soriano JB, Miravitlles M, Munoz L, Duran-Tauleria E. 69.  et al. 2014. Impact of obesity on the clinical profile of a population-based sample with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLOS ONE 9:e105220 [Google Scholar]
  70. Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Bohannon NJ, Kushner RF, Rueger M. 70.  et al. 2014. Weight-loss therapy in type 2 diabetes: effects of phentermine and topiramate extended-release. Diabetes Care 37:3309–16 [Google Scholar]
  71. Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Henry R, Bohannon NJ, Toplak H. 71.  et al. 2014. Prevention of type 2 diabetes in subjects with prediabetes and metabolic syndrome treated with phentermine and topiramate extended release. Diabetes Care 37:912–21 [Google Scholar]
  72. Gesink Law DC, Maclehose RF, Longnecker MP. 72.  2007. Obesity and time to pregnancy. Hum. Reprod. 22:414–20 [Google Scholar]
  73. Goodpaster BH. 73.  2002. Measuring body fat distribution and content in humans. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 5:481–87 [Google Scholar]
  74. Greenburg DL, Lettieri CJ, Eliasson AH. 74.  2009. Effects of surgical weight loss on measures of obstructive sleep apnea: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Med. 122:535–42 [Google Scholar]
  75. Gregg EW, Gerzoff RB, Thompson TJ, Williamson DF. 75.  2003. Intentional weight loss and death in overweight and obese U.S. adults 35 years of age and older. Ann. Intern. Med. 138:383–89 [Google Scholar]
  76. 76. GREPCO (Rome Group Epidemiol. Prev. Cholelithiasis) 1988. The epidemiology of gallstone disease in Rome, Italy. Part I. Prevalence data in men. The Rome Group for Epidemiology and Prevention of Cholelithiasis (GREPCO). Hepatology 8:904–6 [Google Scholar]
  77. Groen VA, van de Graaf VA, Scholtes VA, Sprague S, van Wagensveld BA, Poolman RW. 77.  2014. Effects of bariatric surgery for knee complaints in (morbidly) obese adult patients: a systematic review. Obes. Rev. 16:161–70 [Google Scholar]
  78. Gudbergsen H, Boesen M, Lohmander LS, Christensen R, Henriksen M. 78.  et al. 2012. Weight loss is effective for symptomatic relief in obese subjects with knee osteoarthritis independently of joint damage severity assessed by high-field MRI and radiography. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 20:495–502 [Google Scholar]
  79. Guzick DS, Wing R, Smith D, Berga SL, Winters SJ. 79.  1994. Endocrine consequences of weight loss in obese, hyperandrogenic, anovulatory women. Fertil. Steril. 61:598–604 [Google Scholar]
  80. Hafeez S, Ahmed MH. 80.  2013. Bariatric surgery as potential treatment for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a future treatment by choice or by chance?. J. Obes. 2013:839275 [Google Scholar]
  81. Hageman PA, Pullen CH, Hertzog M, Boeckner LS, Walker SN. 81.  2011. Web-based interventions for weight loss and weight maintenance among rural midlife and older women: protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health 11:521 [Google Scholar]
  82. Hall ME, do Carmo JM, da Silva AA, Juncos LA, Wang Z, Hall JE. 82.  2014. Obesity, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease. Int. J. Nephrol. Renovasc. Dis. 7:75–88 [Google Scholar]
  83. Harrington M, Gibson S, Cottrell RC. 83.  2009. A review and meta-analysis of the effect of weight loss on all-cause mortality risk. Nutr. Res. Rev. 22:93–108 [Google Scholar]
  84. Haslam DW, James WP. 84.  2005. Obesity. Lancet 366:1197–209 [Google Scholar]
  85. Hassanian M, Al-Mulhim A, Al-Sabhan A, Al-Amro S, Bamehriz F. 85.  et al. 2014. The effect of bariatric surgeries on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Saudi J. Gastroenterol. 20:270–78 [Google Scholar]
  86. Heneghan HM, Heinberg L, Windover A, Rogula T, Schauer PR. 86.  2012. Weighing the evidence for an association between obesity and suicide risk. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 8:98–107 [Google Scholar]
  87. Herpertz S, Kielmann R, Wolf AM, Langkafel M, Senf W, Hebebrand J. 87.  2003. Does obesity surgery improve psychosocial functioning? A systematic review. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 27:1300–14 [Google Scholar]
  88. Hollander P, Gupta AK, Plodkowski R, Greenway F, Bays H. 88.  et al. 2013. Effects of naltrexone sustained-release/bupropion sustained-release combination therapy on body weight and glycemic parameters in overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 36:4022–29 [Google Scholar]
  89. Huang H, Amin V, Gurin M, Wan E, Thorp E. 89.  et al. 2013. Diet-induced obesity causes long QT and reduces transcription of voltage-gated potassium channels. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 59:151–58 [Google Scholar]
  90. Hvizdos KM, Markham A. 90.  1999. Orlistat: a review of its use in the management of obesity. Drugs 58:743–60 [Google Scholar]
  91. Hwu CM. 91.  2011. The complicated relationship between weight loss and health-related quality of life: satisfaction not guaranteed. J. Chin. Med. Assoc. 74:149–50 [Google Scholar]
  92. Iacobellis G. 92.  2005. Imaging of visceral adipose tissue: an emerging diagnostic tool and therapeutic target. Curr. Drug Targets Cardiovasc. Haematol. Disord. 5:345–53 [Google Scholar]
  93. Ingram DD, Mussolino ME. 93.  2010. Weight loss from maximum body weight and mortality: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Linked Mortality File. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 34:1044–50 [Google Scholar]
  94. Jacobs EJ, Newton CC, Wang Y, Patel AV, McCullough ML. 94.  et al. 2010. Waist circumference and all-cause mortality in a large US cohort. Arch. Intern. Med. 170:1293–301 [Google Scholar]
  95. Jensen GL, Friedmann JM. 95.  2002. Obesity is associated with functional decline in community-dwelling rural older persons. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 50:918–23 [Google Scholar]
  96. Jiang L, Rong J, Wang Y, Hu F, Bao C. 96.  et al. 2011. The relationship between body mass index and hip osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Joint Bone Spine 78:150–55 [Google Scholar]
  97. Jiang L, Tian W, Wang Y, Rong J, Bao C. 97.  et al. 2012. Body mass index and susceptibility to knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Joint Bone Spine 79:291–97 [Google Scholar]
  98. Johansson K, Cnattingius S, Naslund I, Roos N, Trolle Lagerros Y. 98.  et al. 2015. Outcomes of pregnancy after bariatric surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. 372:814–24 [Google Scholar]
  99. Johnston CA, Moreno JP, Foreyt JP. 99.  2014. Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 16:457 [Google Scholar]
  100. Jungheim ES, Travieso JL, Hopeman MM. 100.  2013. Weighing the impact of obesity on female reproductive function and fertility. Nutr. Rev. 71:Suppl. 1S3–8 [Google Scholar]
  101. Kaltman AJ, Goldring RM. 101.  1976. Role of circulatory congestion in the cardiorespiratory failure of obesity. Am. J. Med. 60:645–53 [Google Scholar]
  102. Karmali S, Birch DW, Sharma AM. 102.  2009. Is it time to abandon excess weight loss in reporting surgical weight loss?. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 5:503–6 [Google Scholar]
  103. Kashyap SR, Bhatt DL, Schauer PR. 103.  2010. Bariatric surgery versus advanced practice medical management in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: rationale and design of the Surgical Therapy And Medications Potentially Eradicate Diabetes Efficiently trial (STAMPEDE). Diabetes Obes. Metab. 12:452–54 [Google Scholar]
  104. Kaw R, Hernandez AV, Walker E, Aboussouan L, Mokhlesi B. 104.  2009. Determinants of hypercapnia in obese patients with obstructive sleep apnea: a systematic review and metaanalysis of cohort studies. Chest 136:787–96 [Google Scholar]
  105. Kawata N, Tatsumi K, Terada J, Tada Y, Tanabe N. 105.  et al. 2007. Daytime hypercapnia in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 132:1832–38 [Google Scholar]
  106. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM. 106.  et al. 2002. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N. Engl. J. Med. 346:393–403 [Google Scholar]
  107. Knudtson MD, Klein BE, Klein R, Shankar A. 107.  2005. Associations with weight loss and subsequent mortality risk. Ann. Epidemiol. 15:483–91 [Google Scholar]
  108. Kolotkin RL, Crosby RD, Williams GR, Hartley GG, Nicol S. 108.  2001. The relationship between health-related quality of life and weight loss. Obes. Res. 9:564–71 [Google Scholar]
  109. Kolotkin RL, Davidson LE, Crosby RD, Hunt SC, Adams TD. 109.  2012. Six-year changes in health-related quality of life in gastric bypass patients versus obese comparison groups. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 8:625–33 [Google Scholar]
  110. Kolotkin RL, Meter K, Williams GR. 110.  2001. Quality of life and obesity. Obes. Rev. 2:219–29 [Google Scholar]
  111. Kovalszky I, Surmacz E, Scolaro L, Cassone M, Ferla R. 111.  et al. 2010. Leptin-based glycopeptide induces weight loss and simultaneously restores fertility in animal models. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 12:393–402 [Google Scholar]
  112. Kuruba R, Almahmeed T, Martinez F, Torrella TA, Haines K. 112.  et al. 2007. Bariatric surgery improves urinary incontinence in morbidly obese individuals. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 3:586–90 [Google Scholar]
  113. Kushner RF, Apovian CM, Fujioka K. 113.  2013. Obesity consults—comprehensive obesity management in 2013: understanding the shifting paradigm. Obesity 21:Suppl. 2S3–13 [Google Scholar]
  114. Kushner RF, Ryan DH. 114.  2014. Assessment and lifestyle management of patients with obesity: clinical recommendations from systematic reviews. JAMA 312:943–52 [Google Scholar]
  115. Kwok CS, Pradhan A, Khan MA, Anderson SG, Keavney BD. 115.  et al. 2014. Bariatric surgery and its impact on cardiovascular disease and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Cardiol. 173:20–28 [Google Scholar]
  116. Laiyemo AO. 116.  2014. The risk of colonic adenomas and colonic cancer in obesity. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 28:655–63 [Google Scholar]
  117. Lasikiewicz N, Myrissa K, Hoyland A, Lawton CL. 117.  2014. Psychological benefits of weight loss following behavioural and/or dietary weight loss interventions. A systematic research review. Appetite 72:123–37 [Google Scholar]
  118. Lau DC. 118.  2007. Synopsis of the 2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children. CMAJ 176:1103–6 [Google Scholar]
  119. Launer LJ, Harris T, Rumpel C, Madans J. 119.  1994. Body mass index, weight change, and risk of mobility disability in middle-aged and older women. The epidemiologic follow-up study of NHANES I. JAMA 271:1093–98 [Google Scholar]
  120. Lavie P, Herer P, Lavie L. 120.  2007. Mortality risk factors in sleep apnoea: a matched case-control study. J. Sleep Res. 16:128–34 [Google Scholar]
  121. Lazo M, Solga SF, Horska A, Bonekamp S, Diehl AM. 121.  et al. 2010. Effect of a 12-month intensive lifestyle intervention on hepatic steatosis in adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 33:2156–63 [Google Scholar]
  122. Leung CC, Lam TH, Yew WW, Chan WM, Law WS, Tam CM. 122.  2011. Lower lung cancer mortality in obesity. Int. J. Epidemiol. 40:174–82 [Google Scholar]
  123. Li Z, Maglione M, Tu W, Mojica W, Arterburn D. 123.  et al. 2005. Meta-analysis: pharmacologic treatment of obesity. Ann. Intern. Med. 142:532–46 [Google Scholar]
  124. 124. Look AHEAD Res. Group 2014. Eight-year weight losses with an intensive lifestyle intervention: the Look AHEAD study. Obesity 22:5–13 [Google Scholar]
  125. Lopresti AL, Drummond PD. 125.  2013. Obesity and psychiatric disorders: commonalities in dysregulated biological pathways and their implications for treatment. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 45:92–99 [Google Scholar]
  126. MacInnis RJ, English DR. 126.  2006. Body size and composition and prostate cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Cancer Causes Control 17:989–1003 [Google Scholar]
  127. Maggard MA, Yermilov I, Li Z, Maglione M, Newberry S. 127.  et al. 2008. Pregnancy and fertility following bariatric surgery: a systematic review. JAMA 300:2286–96 [Google Scholar]
  128. Marti-Valeri C, Sabate A, Masdevall C, Dalmau A. 128.  2007. Improvement of associated respiratory problems in morbidly obese patients after open Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Obes. Surg. 17:1102–10 [Google Scholar]
  129. McCawley GM, Ferriss JS, Geffel D, Northup CJ, Modesitt SC. 129.  2009. Cancer in obese women: potential protective impact of bariatric surgery. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 208:1093–98 [Google Scholar]
  130. Merlotti C, Morabito A, Ceriani V, Pontiroli AE. 130.  2014. Prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese at-risk subjects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Diabetol. 51:853–63 [Google Scholar]
  131. Messerli FH, Nunez BD, Ventura HO, Snyder DW. 131.  1987. Overweight and sudden death. Increased ventricular ectopy in cardiopathy of obesity. Arch. Intern. Med. 147:1725–28 [Google Scholar]
  132. 132. Metrop. Life Insur 1983. 1983 Metropolitan height and weight tables. Stat. Bull. Metrop. Life Found. 64:3–9 [Google Scholar]
  133. Metwally M, Ong KJ, Ledger WL, Li TC. 133.  2008. Does high body mass index increase the risk of miscarriage after spontaneous and assisted conception? A meta-analysis of the evidence. Fertil. Steril. 90:714–26 [Google Scholar]
  134. Modai I, Valevski A, Dror S, Weizman A. 134.  1994. Serum cholesterol levels and suicidal tendencies in psychiatric inpatients. J. Clin. Psychiatry 55:252–54 [Google Scholar]
  135. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F. 135.  et al. 2003. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA 289:76–79 [Google Scholar]
  136. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Nelson DE, Engelgau MM. 136.  et al. 2000. Diabetes trends in the U.S.: 1990–1998. Diabetes Care 23:1278–83 [Google Scholar]
  137. Mokhlesi B. 137.  2010. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: a state-of-the-art review. Respir. Care 55:1347–62; discussion 1363–65 [Google Scholar]
  138. Moreira A, Bonini M, Garcia-Larsen V, Bonini S, Del Giacco SR. 138.  et al. 2013. Weight loss interventions in asthma: EAACI Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline (Part I). Allergy 68:425–39 [Google Scholar]
  139. Neff KJ, Olbers T, le Roux CW. 139.  2013. Bariatric surgery: the challenges with candidate selection, individualizing treatment and clinical outcomes. BMC Med. 11:8 [Google Scholar]
  140. Neter JE, Stam BE, Kok FJ, Grobbee DE, Geleijnse JM. 140.  2003. Influence of weight reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension 42:878–84 [Google Scholar]
  141. Nichols GA, Hillier TA, Brown JB. 141.  2007. Progression from newly acquired impaired fasting glucose to type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 30:228–33 [Google Scholar]
  142. 142. NIH (Natl. Inst. Health) 1998. Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults—The Evidence Report. National Institutes of Health. Obes. Res. 6:Suppl. 251–209S [Google Scholar]
  143. Norris SL, Zhang X, Avenell A, Gregg E, Bowman B. 143.  et al. 2005. Long-term effectiveness of weight-loss interventions in adults with pre-diabetes: a review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 28:126–39 [Google Scholar]
  144. Norris SL, Zhang X, Avenell A, Gregg E, Bowman B. 144.  et al. 2004. Long-term effectiveness of lifestyle and behavioral weight loss interventions in adults with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Med. 117:762–74 [Google Scholar]
  145. Nystad W, Meyer HE, Nafstad P, Tverdal A, Engeland A. 145.  2004. Body mass index in relation to adult asthma among 135,000 Norwegian men and women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 160:969–76 [Google Scholar]
  146. O'Neil PM, Smith SR, Weissman NJ, Fidler MC, Sanchez M. 146.  et al. 2012. Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in type 2 diabetes mellitus: the BLOOM-DM study. Obesity 20:1426–36 [Google Scholar]
  147. Obradovic M, Bjelogrlic P, Rizzo M, Katsiki N, Haidara M. 147.  et al. 2013. Effects of obesity and estradiol on Na+/K+-ATPase and their relevance to cardiovascular diseases. J. Endocrinol. 218:R13–23 [Google Scholar]
  148. Odagiri K, Mizuta I, Yamamoto M, Miyazaki Y, Watanabe H, Uehara A. 148.  2014. Waist to height ratio is an independent predictor for the incidence of chronic kidney disease. PLOS ONE 9:e88873 [Google Scholar]
  149. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. 149.  2012. Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010. JAMA 307:483–90 [Google Scholar]
  150. Ojeda Castillejo E, de Lucas Ramos P, Resano Barrios P, Lopez Martin S, Rodriguez Rodriguez P. 150.  et al. 2015. Mortality in obesity-hypoventilation syndrome and prognostic risk factors. Arch. Bronconeumol.In press
  151. Omalu BI, Cho P, Shakir AM, Agumadu UH, Rozin L. 151.  et al. 2005. Suicides following bariatric surgery for the treatment of obesity. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 1:447–49 [Google Scholar]
  152. Padwal R, Li SK, Lau DC. 152.  2004. Long-term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3:CD004094 [Google Scholar]
  153. Padwal RS, Chang HJ, Klarenbach S, Sharma AM, Majumdar SR. 153.  2012. Characteristics of the population eligible for and receiving publicly funded bariatric surgery in Canada. Int. J. Equity Health 11:54 [Google Scholar]
  154. Padwal RS, Pajewski NM, Allison DB, Sharma AM. 154.  2011. Using the Edmonton obesity staging system to predict mortality in a population-representative cohort of people with overweight and obesity. CMAJ 183:E1059–66 [Google Scholar]
  155. Pan A, Kawachi I, Luo N, Manson JE, Willett WC. 155.  et al. 2014. Changes in body weight and health-related quality of life: 2 cohorts of US women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 180:254–62 [Google Scholar]
  156. Park JG, Ramar K, Olson EJ. 156.  2011. Updates on definition, consequences, and management of obstructive sleep apnea. Mayo Clin. Proc. 86:549–54 [Google Scholar]
  157. Parker ED, Folsom AR. 157.  2003. Intentional weight loss and incidence of obesity-related cancers: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 27:1447–52 [Google Scholar]
  158. Peltonen M, Lindroos AK, Torgerson JS. 158.  2003. Musculoskeletal pain in the obese: a comparison with a general population and long-term changes after conventional and surgical obesity treatment. Pain 104:549–57 [Google Scholar]
  159. Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J. 159.  2000. Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. JAMA 284:3015–21 [Google Scholar]
  160. Perry RJ, Samuel VT, Petersen KF, Shulman GI. 160.  2014. The role of hepatic lipids in hepatic insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature 510:84–91 [Google Scholar]
  161. Peterhansel C, Petroff D, Klinitzke G, Kersting A, Wagner B. 161.  2013. Risk of completed suicide after bariatric surgery: a systematic review. Obes. Rev. 14:369–82 [Google Scholar]
  162. Picot J, Jones J, Colquitt JL, Loveman E, Clegg AJ. 162.  2012. Weight loss surgery for mild to moderate obesity: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Obes. Surg. 22:1496–506 [Google Scholar]
  163. Poirier P, Cornier MA, Mazzone T, Stiles S, Cummings S. 163.  et al. 2011. Bariatric surgery and cardiovascular risk factors: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 123:1683–701 [Google Scholar]
  164. Ranasinghe WK, Wright T, Attia J, McElduff P, Doyle T. 164.  et al. 2011. Effects of bariatric surgery on urinary and sexual function. BJU Int. 107:88–94 [Google Scholar]
  165. Ray K. 165.  2014. Gut microbiota: microbial metabolites feed into the gut-brain-gut circuit during host metabolism. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 11:76 [Google Scholar]
  166. Rees K, Dyakova M, Wilson N, Ward K, Thorogood M, Brunner E. 166.  2013. Dietary advice for reducing cardiovascular risk. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 12:CD002128 [Google Scholar]
  167. Rejeski WJ, Marsh AP, Chmelo E, Rejeski JJ. 167.  2010. Obesity, intentional weight loss and physical disability in older adults. Obes. Rev. 11:671–85 [Google Scholar]
  168. Rich-Edwards JW, Goldman MB, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ. 168.  et al. 1994. Adolescent body mass index and infertility caused by ovulatory disorder. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 171:171–77 [Google Scholar]
  169. Rissanen P, Vahtera E, Krusius T, Uusitupa M, Rissanen A. 169.  2001. Weight change and blood coagulability and fibrinolysis in healthy obese women. Int. J. Obes. Relat. 25:212–18 [Google Scholar]
  170. Rock CL, Byers TE, Colditz GA, Demark-Wahnefried W, Ganz PA. 170.  et al. 2013. Reducing breast cancer recurrence with weight loss, a vanguard trial: the Exercise and Nutrition to Enhance Recovery and Good Health for You (ENERGY) Trial. Contemp. Clin. Trials. 34:282–95 [Google Scholar]
  171. Romero-Corral A, Montori VM, Somers VK, Korinek J, Thomas RJ. 171.  et al. 2006. Association of bodyweight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: a systematic review of cohort studies. Lancet 368:666–78 [Google Scholar]
  172. Ross R, Dagnone D, Jones PJ, Smith H, Paddags A. 172.  et al. 2000. Reduction in obesity and related comorbid conditions after diet-induced weight loss or exercise-induced weight loss in men. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 133:92–103 [Google Scholar]
  173. Rubin RR, Peyrot M, Wang NY, Coughlin JW, Jerome GJ. 173.  et al. 2013. Patient-reported outcomes in the practice-based opportunities for weight reduction (POWER) trial. Qual. Life Res. 22:2389–98 [Google Scholar]
  174. Rucker D, Padwal R, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DC. 174.  2007. Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight: updated meta-analysis. BMJ 335:1194–99 [Google Scholar]
  175. Rueda-Clausen CF, Padwal RS. 175.  2014. Pharmacotherapy for weight loss. BMJ 348:g3526 [Google Scholar]
  176. Rueda-Clausen CF, Padwal RS, Sharma AM. 176.  2013. New pharmacological approaches for obesity management. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 9:467–78 [Google Scholar]
  177. Rumpel C, Harris TB, Madans J. 177.  1993. Modification of the relationship between the Quetelet index and mortality by weight-loss history among older women. Ann. Epidemiol. 3:343–50 [Google Scholar]
  178. Sabah KM, Chowdhury AW, Khan HI, Hasan AT, Haque S. 178.  et al. 2014. Body mass index and waist/height ratio for prediction of severity of coronary artery disease. BMC Res. Notes 7:246 [Google Scholar]
  179. Sacks FM, Bray GA, Carey VJ, Smith SR, Ryan DH. 179.  et al. 2009. Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. N. Engl. J. Med. 360:859–73 [Google Scholar]
  180. Salinardi TC, Batra P, Roberts SB, Urban LE, Robinson LM. 180.  et al. 2013. Lifestyle intervention reduces body weight and improves cardiometabolic risk factors in worksites. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 97:667–76 [Google Scholar]
  181. Sarkhosh K, Switzer NJ, El-Hadi M, Birch DW, Shi X, Karmali S. 181.  2013. The impact of bariatric surgery on obstructive sleep apnea: a systematic review. Obes. Surg. 23:414–23 [Google Scholar]
  182. Schattenberg JM, Schuppan D. 182.  2011. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: the therapeutic challenge of a global epidemic. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 22:479–88 [Google Scholar]
  183. Schols AM, Broekhuizen R, Weling-Scheepers CA, Wouters EF. 183.  2005. Body composition and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82:53–59 [Google Scholar]
  184. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. 184.  2013. Long-term effects of low-fat diets either low or high in protein on cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr. J. 12:48 [Google Scholar]
  185. Sermondade N, Massin N, Boitrelle F, Pfeffer J, Eustache F. 185.  et al. 2012. Sperm parameters and male fertility after bariatric surgery: three case series. Reprod. Biomed. Online 24:206–10 [Google Scholar]
  186. Sharma AM. 186.  2010. M, M, M & M: a mnemonic for assessing obesity. Obes. Rev. 11:808–9 [Google Scholar]
  187. Shea MK, Houston DK, Nicklas BJ, Messier SP, Davis CC. 187.  et al. 2010. The effect of randomization to weight loss on total mortality in older overweight and obese adults: the ADAPT study. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 65:519–25 [Google Scholar]
  188. Shea MK, Nicklas BJ, Houston DK, Miller ME, Davis CC. 188.  et al. 2011. The effect of intentional weight loss on all-cause mortality in older adults: results of a randomized controlled weight-loss trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 94:839–46 [Google Scholar]
  189. Shiffman ML, Kaplan GD, Brinkman-Kaplan V, Vickers FF. 189.  1995. Prophylaxis against gallstone formation with ursodeoxycholic acid in patients participating in a very-low-calorie diet program. Ann. Intern. Med. 122:899–905 [Google Scholar]
  190. Shore SA, Johnston RA. 190.  2006. Obesity and asthma. Pharmacol. Ther. 110:83–102 [Google Scholar]
  191. Siebenhofer A, Jeitler K, Horvath K, Berghold A, Siering U, Semlitsch T. 191.  2013. Long-term effects of weight-reducing drugs in hypertensive patients. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3:CD007654 [Google Scholar]
  192. Sim KA, Partridge SR, Sainsbury A. 192.  2014. Does weight loss in overweight or obese women improve fertility treatment outcomes? A systematic review. Obes. Rev. 15:839–50 [Google Scholar]
  193. Simonsen MK, Hundrup YA, Obel EB, Gronbaek M, Heitmann BL. 193.  2008. Intentional weight loss and mortality among initially healthy men and women. Nutr. Rev. 66:375–86 [Google Scholar]
  194. Sjöström L. 194.  2013. Review of the key results from the Swedish Obese Subjects (SOS) trial—a prospective controlled intervention study of bariatric surgery. J. Intern. Med. 273:219–34 [Google Scholar]
  195. Sjöström L, Gummesson A, Sjöström CD, Narbro K, Peltonen M. 195.  et al. 2009. Effects of bariatric surgery on cancer incidence in obese patients in Sweden (Swedish Obese Subjects Study): a prospective, controlled intervention trial. Lancet Oncol. 10:653–62 [Google Scholar]
  196. Sjöström L, Lindroos AK, Peltonen M, Torgerson J, Bouchard C. 196.  et al. 2004. Lifestyle, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk factors 10 years after bariatric surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. 351:2683–93 [Google Scholar]
  197. Skolnik NS, Ryan DH. 197.  2014. Pathophysiology, epidemiology, and assessment of obesity in adults. J. Fam. Pract. 63:S3–10 [Google Scholar]
  198. St George A, Bauman A, Johnston A, Farrell G, Chey T, George J. 198.  2009. Effect of a lifestyle intervention in patients with abnormal liver enzymes and metabolic risk factors. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 24:399–407 [Google Scholar]
  199. Staessen J, Fagard R, Amery A. 199.  1988. The relationship between body weight and blood pressure. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2:207–17 [Google Scholar]
  200. Stampfer MJ, Maclure KM, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willett WC. 200.  1992. Risk of symptomatic gallstones in women with severe obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 55:652–58 [Google Scholar]
  201. Steele KE. 201.  2011. Hospital complication rates with bariatric surgery in Michigan centers of excellence: the emperor's new clothes. Arch. Surg. 146:254–55 [Google Scholar]
  202. Stefater MA, Wilson-Perez HE, Chambers AP, Sandoval DA, Seeley RJ. 202.  2012. All bariatric surgeries are not created equal: insights from mechanistic comparisons. Endocr. Rev. 33:595–622 [Google Scholar]
  203. Stenius-Aarniala B, Poussa T, Kvarnstrom J, Gronlund EL, Ylikahri M, Mustajoki P. 203.  2000. Immediate and long term effects of weight reduction in obese people with asthma: randomised controlled study. BMJ 320:827–32 [Google Scholar]
  204. Strazzullo P, D'Elia L, Cairella G, Garbagnati F, Cappuccio FP, Scalfi L. 204.  2010. Excess body weight and incidence of stroke: meta-analysis of prospective studies with 2 million participants. Stroke 41:e418–26 [Google Scholar]
  205. Sugerman HJ, Brewer WH, Shiffman ML, Brolin RE, Fobi MA. 205.  et al. 1995. A multicenter, placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, prospective trial of prophylactic ursodiol for the prevention of gallstone formation following gastric-bypass-induced rapid weight loss. Am. J. Surg. 169:91–96 [Google Scholar]
  206. Sugerman HJ, Fairman RP, Sood RK, Engle K, Wolfe L, Kellum JM. 206.  1992. Long-term effects of gastric surgery for treating respiratory insufficiency of obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 55:597–601S [Google Scholar]
  207. Thoma C, Day CP, Trenell MI. 207.  2012. Lifestyle interventions for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in adults: a systematic review. J. Hepatol. 56:255–66 [Google Scholar]
  208. Thomas JG, Bond DS, Phelan S, Hill JO, Wing RR. 208.  2014. Weight-loss maintenance for 10 years in the National Weight Control Registry. Am. J. Prev. Med. 46:17–23 [Google Scholar]
  209. Tindle HA, Omalu B, Courcoulas A, Marcus M, Hammers J, Kuller LH. 209.  2010. Risk of suicide after long-term follow-up from bariatric surgery. Am. J. Med. 123:1036–42 [Google Scholar]
  210. Torgerson JS, Hauptman J, Boldrin MN, Sjostrom L. 210.  2004. XENical in the Prevention of Diabetes in Obese Subjects (XENDOS) study: a randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients. Diabetes Care 27:155–61 [Google Scholar]
  211. Tsai AG, Wadden TA. 211.  2005. Systematic review: an evaluation of major commercial weight loss programs in the United States. Ann. Intern. Med. 142:56–66 [Google Scholar]
  212. Tuah NA, Amiel C, Qureshi S, Car J, Kaur B, Majeed A. 212.  2011. Transtheoretical model for dietary and physical exercise modification in weight loss management for overweight and obese adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 10:CD008066 [Google Scholar]
  213. Tufik S, Santos-Silva R, Taddei JA, Bittencourt LR. 213.  2010. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in the Sao Paulo Epidemiologic Sleep Study. Sleep Med. 11:441–46 [Google Scholar]
  214. Tuomilehto HP, Seppa JM, Partinen MM, Peltonen M, Gylling H. 214.  et al. 2009. Lifestyle intervention with weight reduction: first-line treatment in mild obstructive sleep apnea. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 179:320–27 [Google Scholar]
  215. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hamalainen H. 215.  et al. 2001. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N. Engl. J. Med. 344:1343–50 [Google Scholar]
  216. Unwin N, Shaw J, Zimmet P, Alberti KG. 216.  2002. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glycaemia: the current status on definition and intervention. Diabetic Med. 19:708–23 [Google Scholar]
  217. van der Kooy K, Seidell JC. 217.  1993. Techniques for the measurement of visceral fat: a practical guide. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 17:187–96 [Google Scholar]
  218. van Hout G, van Heck G. 218.  2009. Bariatric psychology, psychological aspects of weight loss surgery. Obes. Facts 2:10–15 [Google Scholar]
  219. Vázquez MJ, Romero-Ruiz A, Tena-Sempere M. 219.  2015. Roles of leptin in reproduction, pregnancy and polycystic ovary syndrome: consensus knowledge and recent developments. Metabolism 64:79–91 [Google Scholar]
  220. Vest AR, Heneghan HM, Agarwal S, Schauer PR, Young JB. 220.  2012. Bariatric surgery and cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review. Heart 98:1763–77 [Google Scholar]
  221. Villareal DT, Chode S, Parimi N, Sinacore DR, Hilton T. 221.  et al. 2011. Weight loss, exercise, or both and physical function in obese older adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 364:1218–29 [Google Scholar]
  222. Vilsboll T, Christensen M, Junker AE, Knop FK, Gluud LL. 222.  2012. Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on weight loss: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 344:d7771 [Google Scholar]
  223. von Scholten BJ, Lajer M, Goetze JP, Persson F, Rossing P. 223.  2015. Time course and mechanisms of the anti-hypertensive and renal effects of liraglutide treatment. Diabetic Med. 32:343–52 [Google Scholar]
  224. Wadden TA, Volger S, Sarwer DB, Vetter ML, Tsai AG. 224.  et al. 2011. A two-year randomized trial of obesity treatment in primary care practice. N. Engl. J. Med. 365:1969–79 [Google Scholar]
  225. Wadden TA, West DS, Delahanty L, Jakicic J, Rejeski J. 225.  et al. 2006. The Look AHEAD study: a description of the lifestyle intervention and the evidence supporting it. Obesity 14:737–52 [Google Scholar]
  226. Walter CP, Bleske BE, Dorsch MP. 226.  2014. Pharmacotherapy for weight loss: the cardiovascular effects of the old and new agents. J. Clin. Pharmacy Ther. 39:475–84 [Google Scholar]
  227. Wang B, Zhong J, Lin H, Zhao Z, Yan Z. 227.  et al. 2013. Blood pressure-lowering effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists exenatide and liraglutide: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 15:737–49 [Google Scholar]
  228. Wang TD, Goto S, Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Chan JC. 228.  et al. 2010. Ethnic differences in the relationships of anthropometric measures to metabolic risk factors in Asian patients at risk of atherothrombosis: results from the REduction of Atherothrombosis for Continued Health (REACH) Registry. Metabolism 59:400–8 [Google Scholar]
  229. Warkentin LM, Majumdar SR, Johnson JA, Agborsangaya CB, Rueda-Clausen CF. 229.  et al. 2014. Weight loss required by the severely obese to achieve clinically important differences in health-related quality of life: two-year prospective cohort study. BMC Med. 12:175 [Google Scholar]
  230. Wei M, Gaskill SP, Haffner SM, Stern MP. 230.  1997. Waist circumference as the best predictor of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) compared to body mass index, waist/hip ratio and other anthropometric measurements in Mexican Americans—a 7-year prospective study. Obes. Res. 5:16–23 [Google Scholar]
  231. Weiss J, Rau M, Geier A. 231.  2014. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: epidemiology, clinical course, investigation, and treatment. Dtsch. Arztebl. Int. 111:447–52 [Google Scholar]
  232. Wilfley DE, Kolko RP, Kass AE. 232.  2011. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for weight management and eating disorders in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 20:271–85 [Google Scholar]
  233. Williamson DF, Thompson TJ, Thun M, Flanders D, Pamuk E, Byers T. 233.  2000. Intentional weight loss and mortality among overweight individuals with diabetes. Diabetes Care 23:1499–504 [Google Scholar]
  234. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Sullivan L, Parise H, Kannel WB. 234.  2002. Overweight and obesity as determinants of cardiovascular risk: the Framingham experience. Arch. Intern. Med. 162:1867–72 [Google Scholar]
  235. Windover AK, Merrell J, Ashton K, Heinberg LJ. 235.  2010. Prevalence and psychosocial correlates of self-reported past suicide attempts among bariatric surgery candidates. Surg. Obes. Relat. Dis. 6:702–6 [Google Scholar]
  236. Wing RR. 236.  2010. Long-term effects of a lifestyle intervention on weight and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus: four-year results of the Look AHEAD trial. Arch. Intern. Med. 170:1566–75 [Google Scholar]
  237. Wing RR, Bolin P, Brancati FL, Bray GA, Clark JM. 237.  et al. 2013. Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 369:145–54 [Google Scholar]
  238. Wing RR, Hill JO. 238.  2001. Successful weight loss maintenance. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 21:323–41 [Google Scholar]
  239. Winters BR, Walsh TJ. 239.  2014. The epidemiology of male infertility. Urol. Clin. North Am. 41:195–204 [Google Scholar]
  240. Wise LA, Palmer JR, Rosenberg L. 240.  2013. Body size and time-to-pregnancy in black women. Hum. Reprod. 28:2856–64 [Google Scholar]
  241. Wise LA, Rothman KJ, Mikkelsen EM, Sorensen HT, Riis A, Hatch EE. 241.  2010. An internet-based prospective study of body size and time-to-pregnancy. Hum. Reprod. 25:253–64 [Google Scholar]
  242. Witham MD, Avenell A. 242.  2010. Interventions to achieve long-term weight loss in obese older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Age Ageing 39:176–84 [Google Scholar]
  243. Wudel LJ Jr, Wright JK, Debelak JP, Allos TM, Shyr Y, Chapman WC. 243.  2002. Prevention of gallstone formation in morbidly obese patients undergoing rapid weight loss: results of a randomized controlled pilot study. J. Surg. Res. 102:50–56 [Google Scholar]
  244. Yeh SS, DeGuzman B, Kramer T. 244.  2002. Reversal of COPD-associated weight loss using the anabolic agent oxandrolone. Chest 122:421–28 [Google Scholar]
  245. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Bautista L, Franzosi MG. 245.  et al. 2005. Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study. Lancet 366:1640–49 [Google Scholar]
  246. Zatonski WA, Lowenfels AB, Boyle P, Maisonneuve P, Bueno de Mesquita HB. 246.  et al. 1997. Epidemiologic aspects of gallbladder cancer: a case-control study of the SEARCH Program of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 89:1132–38 [Google Scholar]
  247. Zelber-Sagi S, Kessler A, Brazowsky E, Webb M, Lurie Y. 247.  et al. 2006. A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 4:639–44 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071714-034434
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071714-034434
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error