1932

Abstract

The efficacy of interventions might be underestimated or even go undetected as a main effect when it is hidden in gene-by-environment (G×E) interactions. This review moves beyond the problems thwarting correlational G×E research to propose genetic differential susceptibility experiments. G×E experiments can test the bright side as well as the dark side of the moderating role of genotypes traditionally considered to represent vulnerability to negative conditions. The differential susceptibility model predicts that carriers of these risk genotypes profit most from interventions changing the environment for the better. The evolutionary background of G×E and differential susceptibility is discussed, and statistical methods for the analysis of differential susceptibility (versus diathesis stress) are reviewed. Then, based on results from 22 randomized G×E experiments, meta-analytic evidence for the differential susceptibility model is presented. Intervention effects are much stronger in the susceptible genotypes than in the nonsusceptible genotypes. The final sections suggest possibilities to broaden the G component in the G×E equation by including genetic pathways, and to broaden the E component by including methylation level and gene expression as promising ways to probe the concept of the environment more deeply and address the perennial issue of what works for whom.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015407
2015-01-03
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/66/1/annurev-psych-010814-015407.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015407&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aiken LS, West SG. 1991. Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions Newbury Park, CA: Sage
  2. Albert WD, Belsky DW, Crowley DM, Latendresse SJ, Aliev F. et al. 2015. Can genetics predict response to complex behavioral interventions? Evidence from a genetic analysis of the Fast Track Randomized Control Trial. Dev. Psychopathol. In press
  3. Andersson E, Ruck C, Lavebratt C, Hedman E, Schalling M. et al. 2013. Genetic polymorphisms in monoamine systems and outcome of cognitive behavior therapy for social anxiety disorder. PLOS ONE 8:e79015 [Google Scholar]
  4. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH. 2007. Genetic vulnerability or differential susceptibility in child development: the case of attachment. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48:1160–73 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH. 2011. Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: new evidence and a meta-analysis. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:39–52 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH, Juffer F. 2003. Less is more: meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychol. Bull. 129:195–215 [Google Scholar]
  7. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH, Mesman J, Alink LRA, Juffer F. 2008a. Effects of an attachment-based intervention on daily cortisol moderated by DRD4: a randomized control trial on 1–3-year-olds screened for externalizing behavior. Dev. Psychopathol. 20:805–20 [Google Scholar]
  8. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH, Pijlman FT, Mesman J, Juffer F. 2008b. Experimental evidence for differential susceptibility: Dopamine D4 receptor polymorphism (DRD4 VNTR) moderates intervention effects on toddlers' externalizing behavior in a randomized controlled trial. Dev. Psychol. 44:293–300 [Google Scholar]
  9. Beach SRH, Brody GH, Lei MK, Philibert RA. 2010. Differential susceptibility to parenting among African American youths: testing the DRD4 hypothesis. J. Fam. Psychol. 24:513–21 [Google Scholar]
  10. Belsky J. 1997a. Variation in susceptibility to rearing influences: an evolutionary argument. Psychol. Inq. 8:182–86 [Google Scholar]
  11. Belsky J. 1997b. Theory testing, effect-size evaluation, and differential susceptibility to rearing influence: the case of mothering and attachment. Child Dev. 68:598–600 [Google Scholar]
  12. Belsky J. 2000. Conditional and alternative reproductive strategies: individual differences in susceptibility to rearing experience. Genetic Influences on Human Fertility and Sexuality: Theoretical and Empirical Contributions from the Biological and Behavioral Sciences J Rodgers, D Rowe, W Miller 127–46 Boston: Kluwer [Google Scholar]
  13. Belsky J. 2005. Differential susceptibility to rearing influences: an evolutionary hypothesis and some evidence. Origins of the Social Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and Child Development B Ellis, D Bjorklund 139–63 New York: Guilford [Google Scholar]
  14. Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH. 2007. For better and for worse: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16:300–4 [Google Scholar]
  15. Belsky J, Beaver KM. 2011. Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 52:619–26 [Google Scholar]
  16. Belsky J, Jonassaint C, Pluess M, Stanton M, Brummett B, Williams R. 2009. Vulnerability genes or plasticity genes?. Mol. Psychiatry 14:746–54 [Google Scholar]
  17. Belsky J, Pluess M. 2013. Genetic moderation of early child-care effects on social functioning across childhood: a developmental analysis. Child Dev. 84:1209–25 [Google Scholar]
  18. Belsky J, Pluess M, Widaman KF. 2013. Confirmatory and competitive evaluation of alternative gene–environment interaction hypotheses. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 54:1135–43 [Google Scholar]
  19. Bockting CL, Mocking RJ, Lok A, Koeter MW, Schene AH. 2013. Therapygenetics: the 5HTTLPR as a biomarker for response to psychological therapy?. Mol. Psychiatry 18:744–45 [Google Scholar]
  20. Boyce WT, Chesney M, Alkon A, Tschann JM, Adams S. et al. 1995. Psychobiologic reactivity to stress and childhood respiratory illnesses: results of two prospective studies. Psychosom. Med. 57:411–22 [Google Scholar]
  21. Boyce WT, Ellis BJ. 2005. Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary-developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Dev. Psychopathol. 17:271–301 [Google Scholar]
  22. Brett ZH, Humphreys KL, Smyke AT, Gleason MM, Nelson CA. et al. 2015. 5HTTLPR genotype moderates the longitudinal impact of early caregiving and attachment on externalizing behavior. Dev. Psychopathol. In press
  23. Brody GH, Chen YF, Beach SRH. 2013. Differential susceptibility to prevention: GABAergic, dopaminergic, and multilocus effects. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 54:863–71 [Google Scholar]
  24. Brody GH, Chen YF, Beach SRH, Kogan SM, Yu T. et al. 2014. Differential sensitivity to prevention programming: a dopaminergic polymorphism-enhanced prevention effect on protective parenting and adolescent substance use. Health Psychol. 33:182–91 [Google Scholar]
  25. Brody GH, Murry VM, Kogan SM, Gerrard M, Gibbons FX. et al. 2006. The Strong African American Families program: a cluster randomized prevention trial of long-term effects and a mediational model. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 74:356–66 [Google Scholar]
  26. Caspi A, Hariri AR, Holmes A, Uher R, Moffitt TE. 2010. Genetic sensitivity to the environment: the case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. Am. J. Psychiatry 167:509–27 [Google Scholar]
  27. Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J. et al. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297:851–54 [Google Scholar]
  28. Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Craig IW. et al. 2003. Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301:386–89 [Google Scholar]
  29. Chang F-M, Kidd JR, Livak KJ, Pakstis AJ, Kidd KK. 1996. The worldwide distribution of allele frequencies at the human dopamine D4 receptor locus. Hum. Genet. 98:91–101 [Google Scholar]
  30. Cheon K, Kim B, Cho S. 2007. Association of 4-repeat allele of the dopamine D4 receptor gene exon III polymorphism and response to methylphenidate treatment in Korean ADHD children. Neuropsychopharmacology 32:1377–83 [Google Scholar]
  31. Chiao JY, Blizinsky KD. 2010. Culture-gene coevolution of individualism-collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. Proc. R. Soc. B 277:529–37 [Google Scholar]
  32. Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA, Toth SL. 2011. The effects of child maltreatment and polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter and dopamine D4 receptor genes on infant attachment and intervention efficacy. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:357–72 [Google Scholar]
  33. Cleveland HH, Schlomer GL, Van den Bergh DJ, Feinberg M, Greenberg M. et al. 2015. Influences of interventions, parenting, and the DRD4 gene on alcohol use in early adolescence. Dev. Psychopathol. In press
  34. Conley D, Rauscher E, Siegal ML. 2013. Beyond orchids and dandelions: testing the 5-HTT “risky” allele for evidence of phenotypic capacitance and frequency-dependent selection. Biodemogr. Soc. Biol. 59:37–56 [Google Scholar]
  35. Conti G, Heckman JJ. 2010. Understanding the early origins of the education-health gradient: a framework that can also be applied to analyze gene-environment interactions. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 5:585–605 [Google Scholar]
  36. Dall SRX, Houston AI, McNamara JM. 2004. The behavioral ecology of personality: consistent individual differences from an adaptive perspective. Ecol. Lett. 7:734–39 [Google Scholar]
  37. DeWitt TJ, Sih A, Wilson DS. 1998. Costs and limits of phenotypic plasticity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13:77–81 [Google Scholar]
  38. Dingemanse NJ, Wolf M. 2013. Between-individual differences in behavioral plasticity within populations: causes and consequences. Anim. Behav. 85:1031–39 [Google Scholar]
  39. Dobbs D. 2009. The science of success. Atlantic 12:1–15 [Google Scholar]
  40. Dobson SD, Brent LJN. 2013. On the evolution of the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) in primates. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:1–9 [Google Scholar]
  41. Duncan LE, Keller MC. 2011. A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. Am. J. Psychiatry 168:1041–49 [Google Scholar]
  42. Eley TC, Hudson JL, Creswell C, Tropeano M, Lester KJ. et al. 2012. Therapygenetics: the 5HTTLPR and response to psychological therapy. Mol. Psychiatry 17:236–37 [Google Scholar]
  43. Ellis BJ, Boyce WT, Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH. 2011. Differential susceptibility to the environment: a neurodevelopmental theory. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:7–28 [Google Scholar]
  44. Ellis BJ, Essex MJ, Boyce WT. 2005. Biological sensitivity to context: II. Empirical explorations of an evolutionary-developmental theory. Dev. Psychopathol. 17:303–28 [Google Scholar]
  45. Fox E, Zougkou K, Ridgewell A, Garner K. 2011. The serotonin transporter gene alters sensitivity to attention bias modification: evidence for a plasticity gene. Biol. Psychiatry 70:1049–54 [Google Scholar]
  46. Fraga MF, Ballestar E, Paz MF, Ropero S, Setien F. et al. 2005. Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:10604–9 [Google Scholar]
  47. Gallardo-Pujol D, Andrés-Pueyo A, Maydeu-Olivares A. 2013. MAOA genotype, social exclusion and aggression: an experimental test of a gene-environment interaction. Genes Brain Behav. 12:140–45 [Google Scholar]
  48. Gelernter J, Cubells JF, Kidd JR, Pakstis AJ, Kidd KK. 1999. Population studies of polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter protein gene. Am. J. Med. Genet. 88:61–66 [Google Scholar]
  49. Gotlib IH, Joormann J, Minor KL, Hallmayer J. 2008. HPA-axis reactivity: a mechanism underlying the associations among 5-HTTLPR, stress, and depression. Biol. Psychiatry 63:847–51 [Google Scholar]
  50. Gottesman II, Shields J. 1967. A polygenic theory of schizophrenia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 58:199–205 [Google Scholar]
  51. Hakamata Y, Lissek S, Bar-Haim Y, Britton JC, Fox NA. et al. 2010. Attention bias modification treatment: a meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biol. Psychiatry 68:982–90 [Google Scholar]
  52. Halford WK, Markman HJ, Stanley S. 2008. Strengthening couples' relationships with education: social policy and public health perspectives. J. Fam. Psychol. 22:497–505 [Google Scholar]
  53. Hamilton WD. 1964a. The genetical evolution of social behavior: I. J. Theor. Biol. 7:1–16 [Google Scholar]
  54. Hamilton WD. 1964b. The genetical evolution of social behavior: II. J. Theor. Biol. 7:17–52 [Google Scholar]
  55. Hariri AR, Mattay VS, Tessitore A, Kolachana B, Fera F. et al. 2002. Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 297:400–3 [Google Scholar]
  56. Homberg JR, Lesch KP. 2011. Looking on the bright side of serotonin transporter gene variation. Biol. Psychiatry 69:513–19 [Google Scholar]
  57. Israel S, Lerer E, Shalev I, Uzefovsky F, Riebold M. et al. 2009. The oxytocin receptor (OXTR) contributes to prosocial fund allocations in the dictator game and the social value orientations task. PLOS ONE 4:e5535 [Google Scholar]
  58. Karg K, Burmeister M, Shedden K, Sen S. 2011. The serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress, and depression meta-analysis revisited: evidence of genetic moderation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68:444–54 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kegel CAT, Bus AG, Van IJzendoorn MH. 2011. Differential susceptibility in early literacy instruction through computer games: the role of the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4). Mind Brain Educ. 5:71–79 [Google Scholar]
  60. Keller MC. 2014. Gene×environment interaction studies have not properly controlled for potential confounders: the problem and the (simple) solution. Biol. Psychiatry 75:18–24 [Google Scholar]
  61. Kochanska G, Kim S, Barry RA, Philibert RA. 2011. Children's genotypes interact with maternal responsive care in predicting children's competence: diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility?. Dev. Psychopathol. 22:605–16 [Google Scholar]
  62. Kohen R, Cain KC, Buzaitis A, Johnson V, Becker KJ. et al. 2011. Response to psychosocial treatment in post-stroke depression is associated with serotonin transporter polymorphisms. Stroke 42:2068–70 [Google Scholar]
  63. MacLeod C, Rutherford E, Campbell L, Ebsworthy G, Holker L. 2002. Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 111:107–23 [Google Scholar]
  64. Manuck SB. 2010. The reaction norm in gene×environment interaction. Mol. Psychiatry 15:881–82 [Google Scholar]
  65. Manuck SB, McCaffery JM. 2014. Gene-environment interaction. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65:41–70 [Google Scholar]
  66. Markus CR, Verschoor E, Smeets T. 2012. Differential effect of the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region on emotional eating during stress exposure following tryptophan challenge. J. Nutr. Biochem. 23:410–16 [Google Scholar]
  67. McClelland GH, Judd CM. 1993. Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. Psychol. Bull. 114:376–90 [Google Scholar]
  68. McDermott R, Tingley D, Cowden J, Frazzetto G, Johnson DDP. 2009. Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106:2118–23 [Google Scholar]
  69. McGuffin P, Alsabban S, Uher R. 2011. The truth about genetic variation in the serotonin transporter gene and response to stress and medication. Br. J. Psychiatry 198:424–27 [Google Scholar]
  70. Meaney MJ. 2001. Nature, nurture, and the disunity of knowledge. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 935:50–61 [Google Scholar]
  71. Meaney MJ. 2010. Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene×environment interactions. Child Dev. 81:41–79 [Google Scholar]
  72. Monroe SM, Simons AD. 1991. Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: implications for the depressive disorders. Psychol. Bull. 110:406–25 [Google Scholar]
  73. Mueller A, Brocke B, Fries E, Lesch KP, Kirschbaum C. 2010. The role of the serotonin transporter polymorphism for the endocrine stress response in newborns. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35:289–96 [Google Scholar]
  74. Munafò MR, Durrant C, Lewis G, Flint J. 2009. Gene-environment interactions at the serotonin transporter locus. Biol. Psychiatry 65:211–19 [Google Scholar]
  75. Munafò MR, Zammit S, Flint J. 2014. A critical perspective on gene-environment interaction models: What impact should they have on clinical perceptions and practice?. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 551092–101
  76. Nelson CA, Fox NA, Zeanah CH. 2014. Romania's Abandoned Children: Deprivation, Brain Development, and the Struggle for Recovery Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  77. Oberlander TF, Weinberg J, Papsdorf M, Grunau R, Misri S, Devlin AM. 2008. Prenatal exposure to maternal depression, neonatal methylation of human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and infant cortisol stress responses. Epigenetics 3:97–106 [Google Scholar]
  78. Pergamin-Hight L, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van IJzendoorn MH, Bar-Haim Y. 2012. Variations in the promoter region of the serotonin-transporter gene (5HTTLPR) and biased attention for emotional information: a meta-analysis. Biol. Psychol. 71:373–79 [Google Scholar]
  79. Plak R, Kegel C, Bus AG. 2015. Genetic differential susceptibility in literacy delayed children: a randomized controlled trial on emergent literacy in kindergarten. Dev. Psychopathol. In press
  80. Plomin R. 2013. Child development and molecular genetics: 14 years later. Child Dev. 84:104–20 [Google Scholar]
  81. Pluess M, Belsky J. 2013. Vantage sensitivity: individual differences in response to positive experiences. Psychol. Bull. 139:901–16 [Google Scholar]
  82. Popper KR. 1979. Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  83. Preacher KJ, Curran PJ, Bauer DJ. 2006. Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. J. Educ. Behav. Stat. 31:437–48 [Google Scholar]
  84. Risch N, Herrell R, Lehner T, Liang KY, Eaves L. et al. 2009. Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: a meta-analysis. JAMA 301:2462–71 [Google Scholar]
  85. Rockoff JD. 2013. Nature vs. nurture: New science stirs debate. How behavior is shaped; who's an orchid, who's a dandelion. Wall Street J. Sept. 16
  86. Roisman GI, Newman DA, Fraley C, Haltigan JD, Groh AM. et al. 2012. Distinguishing differential susceptibility from diathesis-stress: recommendations for evaluating interaction effects. Dev. Psychopathol. 24:389–409 [Google Scholar]
  87. Roth A, Fonagy P. 2005. What Works for Whom? A Critical Review of Psychotherapy Research. New York: Guilford, 2nd ed..
  88. Rutter M. 2006. Genes and Behavior. Nature-Nurture Interplay Explained Oxford, UK: Blackwell
  89. Rutter M. 2010. Gene-environment interplay. Depress. Anxiety 27:1–4 [Google Scholar]
  90. Sameroff AJ. 1983. Developmental systems: contexts and evolution. Handbook of Child Psychology P Mussen 237–94 New York: Wiley [Google Scholar]
  91. Sasaki JY, Kim HS, Mojaverian T, Kelley LDS, Park IY, Janušonis S. 2013. Religion priming differentially increases prosocial behavior among variants of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene. Soc. Cogn. Aff. Neurosci. 8:209–15 [Google Scholar]
  92. Schleidgen S, Klingler C, Bertram T, Rogowski WH, Marckmann G. 2013. What is personalized medicine: sharpening a vague term based on systematic literature review. BMC Med. Ethics 14:55 [Google Scholar]
  93. Snell-Rood EC. 2013. An overview of the evolutionary causes and consequences of behavioural plasticity. Anim. Behav. 85:1004–11 [Google Scholar]
  94. Söderqvist S, Bergman Nutley S, Peyrard-Janvid M, Matsson H, Humphreys K. et al. 2012. Dopamine, working memory, and training induced plasticity: implications for developmental research. Dev. Psychol. 48:836–43 [Google Scholar]
  95. Spoth R, Guyll M, Lillehoj CJ, Redmond C, Greenberg M. 2007. PROSPER study of evidence-based intervention implementation quality by community-university partnerships. J. Community Psychol. 35:981–99 [Google Scholar]
  96. Sulik MJ, Eisenberg N, Lemery-Chalfant K, Spinrad TL, Silva KM. et al. 2012. Interactions between serotonin transporter gene haplotypes and quality of mothers' parenting predict the development of children's noncompliance. Dev. Psychol. 48:740–54 [Google Scholar]
  97. Sulloway FJ. 1996. Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives New York: Pantheon
  98. Suomi SJ. 2006. Risk, resilience, and gene×environment interactions in rhesus monkeys. Res. Child. 1094:52–62 [Google Scholar]
  99. Sweitzer MM, Halder I, Flory JD, Craig AE, Gianaros PJ. et al. 2012. Polymorphic variation in the dopamine D4 receptor predicts delay discounting as a function of childhood socioeconomic status: evidence for differential susceptibility. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8:499–508 [Google Scholar]
  100. Taylor SE, Way BM, Seeman TE. 2011. Early adversity and adult health outcomes. Dev. Psychopathol. 23:939–54 [Google Scholar]
  101. Thomas D. 2010a. Methods for investigating gene-environment interactions in candidate pathway and genome-wide association studies. Annu. Rev. Public Health 31:21–36 [Google Scholar]
  102. Thomas D. 2010b. Gene-environment-wide association studies: emerging approaches. Nat. Rev. Gen. 11:259–72 [Google Scholar]
  103. Trzaskowski M, Dale PS, Plomin R. 2013. No genetic influence for childhood behavior problems from DNA analysis. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 52:1048–56 [Google Scholar]
  104. Uher R, McGuffin P. 2008. The moderation by the serotonin transporter gene of environmental adversity in the aetiology of mental illness: review and methodological analysis. Mol. Psychiatry 13:131–46 [Google Scholar]
  105. Uher R, McGuffin P. 2010. The moderation by the serotonin transporter gene of environmental adversity in the etiology of depression: 2009 update. Mol. Psychiatry 15:18–22 [Google Scholar]
  106. Van den Hoofdakker BJ, Nauta MH, Dijck-Brouwer DAJ, van der Veen-Mulders L, Sytema S. et al. 2012. Dopamine transporter gene moderates response to behavioral parent training in children with ADHD: a pilot study. Dev. Psychol. 48:567–74 [Google Scholar]
  107. Van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ. 2012. Differential susceptibility experiments: going beyond correlational evidence: comment on beyond mental health, differential susceptibility articles. Dev. Psychol. 48:769–74 [Google Scholar]
  108. Van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ. 2015. Genetic differential susceptibility on trial: meta-analytic support from randomized controlled experiments. Dev. Psychopathol. In press
  109. Van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Belsky J, Beach S, Brody G. et al. 2011a. Gene-by-environment experiments: a new approach to finding the missing heritability. Nat. Rev. Genet. 12:881 [Google Scholar]
  110. Van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Ebstein RP. 2011b. Methylation matters in child development: toward developmental behavioral epigenetics. Child Dev. Perspect. 5:305–10 [Google Scholar]
  111. Van IJzendoorn MH, Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ. 2012. Serotonin transporter genotype 5HTTLPR as a marker of differential susceptibility? A meta-analysis of child and adolescent gene-by-environment studies. Transl. Psychiatry 2:1–6 [Google Scholar]
  112. Van IJzendoorn MH, Caspers K, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Beach SRH, Philibert R. 2010. Methylation matters: Interaction between methylation density and 5HTT genotype predicts unresolved loss or trauma. Biol. Psychiatry 68:405–7 [Google Scholar]
  113. Verhoeven JF, Jansen JJ, Van Dijk PJ, Biere A. 2010. Stress-induced DNA methylation changes and their heritability in asexual dandelions. New Phytol. 185:1108–18 [Google Scholar]
  114. Verona E, Joiner TE, Johnson F, Bender TW. 2006. Gender specific gene-environment interactions on laboratory-assessed aggression. Biol. Psychol. 71:33–41 [Google Scholar]
  115. Verschoor E, Markus CR. 2012. Physiological and affective reactivity to a 35% CO2 inhalation challenge in individuals differing in the 5-HTTLPR genotype and trait neuroticism. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 22:546–54 [Google Scholar]
  116. Vijayendran M, Cutrona C, Beach SRH, Brody GH, Russell D, Philibert RA. 2012. The relationship of the serotonin transporter (SLC6A4) extra long variant to gene expression in an African American sample. Am. J. Med. Genet. Part B 159B:611–12 [Google Scholar]
  117. Wachs TD, Plomin R. 1991. Conceptualization and Measurement of Organism-Environment Interaction Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
  118. Way BM, Taylor SE. 2010. The serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism is associated with cortisol response to psychosocial stress. Biol. Psychiatry 67:487–92 [Google Scholar]
  119. Way BM, Taylor SE. 2011. A polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene moderates cardiovascular reactivity to psychosocial stress. Psychosom. Med. 73:310–17 [Google Scholar]
  120. Widaman KF, Helm JL, Castro-Schilo L, Pluess M, Stallings MC, Belsky J. 2012. Distinguishing ordinal and disordinal interactions. Psychol. Methods 17:615–22 [Google Scholar]
  121. Williams KD, Jarvis B. 2006. Cyberball: a program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behav. Res. Methods 38:174–80 [Google Scholar]
  122. Williams RB, Marchuk DA, Gadde KM, Barefoot JC, Grichnik K. et al. 2003. Serotonin-related gene polymorphisms and central nervous system serotonin functions. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:533–41 [Google Scholar]
  123. Wolf M, Van Doorn GS, Weissing FJ. 2008. Evolutionary emergence of responsive and unresponsive personalities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:15825–30 [Google Scholar]
  124. Wolf M, Van Doorn GS, Weissing FJ. 2011. On the coevolution of social responsiveness and behavioural consistency. Proc. R. Soc. B 278:440–48 [Google Scholar]
  125. Wong MY, Day NE, Luan JA, Chan KP, Wareham NJ. 2003. The detection of gene-environment interaction for continuous traits: Should we deal with measurement error by bigger studies or better measurement?. Int. J. Epidemiol. 32:51–57 [Google Scholar]
  126. Yang J, Lee SH, Goddard ME, Visscher PM. 2011. GCTA: a tool for genome-wide complex trait analysis. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 88:76–82 [Google Scholar]
  127. Zuckerman M. 1999. Vulnerability to Psychopathology: A Biosocial Model Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015407
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015407
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error