1932

Abstract

Looting and spoliation of archaeological sites represent a known crisis in many parts of the world, and it is widely acknowledged that despite what we know about the scale of site destruction, the reality is worse. Available evidence suggests that the scale and severity of looting are increasing. Legal and ethical remedies exist but have not proven adequate to reduce the impact of looting and antiquities trafficking. This reflects, in part, inadequate resources and uneven enforcement, and also the pressures of rising prices for antiquities, growing market demand, severe economic depression, and lawlessness, particularly in conflict zones. But it also reflects expanding ideological causes for site destruction by others, as well as competing epistemologies and deontological expectations within the discipline itself challenging the site preservation imperative in archaeology. More than ten years ago, a previous review of these topics found the response inadequate; a decade later, matters are worse.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041320
2018-10-21
2024-10-15
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/anthro/47/1/annurev-anthro-102116-041320.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041320&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. ACCG (Anc. Coin Collect. Guild) 2009. Coin collectors to challenge State Department on import restrictions. CoinNews.net May 13. http://www.coinnews.net/2009/05/13/coin-collectors-to-challenge-state-department-on-import-restrictions/
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Adler MA, Bruning SB 2012. The Future of Our Pasts: Ethical Implications of Collecting Antiquities in the Twenty-First Century Santa Fe, NM: Sch. Adv. Res. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  3. AIA (Archaeol. Inst. Am.) Prof. Responsib. Comm 2006. AIA statement in museum acquisitions and loans of antiquities and ancient works of art: response to the AAMD Report on the Loan of Archaeological and Ancient Artworks Response statement, AIA Boston: https://www.archaeological.org/pdfs/archaeologywatch/museumpolicy/AIA_AAMD_Response.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Al-Houdalieh SH. 2012. Archaeological heritage and spiritual protection: looting and the jinn in Palestine. J. Mediterr. Archaeol. 25:199–120
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Al-Hussainy A, Matthews R 2008. The archaeological heritage of Iraq in historical perspective. Public Archaeol 7:291–100
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Alder C, Polk K 2002. Stopping this awful business: the illicit traffic in antiquities examined as a criminal market. Art Antiq. Law 7:135–53
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Antoniadou I. 2009. Reflections on an archaeological ethnography of ‘looting’ in Kozani, Greece. Public Archaeol 8:2–3246–61
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Antoniadou I. 2012. ‘Looting’ unveiled, archaeology revealed: case studies from western Greece. Archaeology to Archaeologies: The ‘Other’ Past A Simandiraki-Grimshaw, E Stefanou 86–92 BAR-IS 2409 Oxford, UK: Archaeopress
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Atwood R. 2004. Stealing History: Tomb Raiders, Smugglers, and the Looting of the Ancient World New York: St. Martins
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Barker AW. 2000. Ethics, E-Commerce, and the Past. SAA Bulletin 18:1 http://www.saa.org/Portals/0/SAA/publications/SAAbulletin/18-1/saa13.html
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Barker AW. 2007. Guidelines for the responsible acquisition of antiquities and cultural property. Anthropol. News 48:322–23
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Barker AW. 2012. Provenience, provenance, and context(s). See Adler & Bruning 2012 19–30
  13. Barker AW, Lazrus PK 2012. All the king's horses: an introduction. See Lazrus & Barker 2012 1–8
  14. Bland R. 2009. The United Kingdom as a source country: some problems in regulating the market in UK antiquities and the challenge of the Internet. See Mackenzie & Green 2009b 83–102
  15. Blumt O. 2002. The illicit antiquities trade: an analysis of current antiquities looting in Israel. Cult. Without Context 11:20–23
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Boardman J. 2006. Archaeologists, collectors and museums. See Robson et al. 2006 33–46
  17. Borodkin LJ. 1995. The economics of antiquities looting and a proposed legal alternative. Columbia Law Rev 95:2377–417
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bowman B. 2008. Transnational crimes against culture: looting at archaeological sites and the “grey” market in antiquities. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 24:3225–42
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Braarvig J. 2014. Iconoclasm—three modern cases. See Kolrud & Prusac 2014 153–70
  20. Brodie N. 1998. Pity the poor middlemen. Cult. Without Context 3:7–9
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Brodie N. 2002. Introduction. See Brodie & Tubb 2002 1–22
  22. Brodie N. 2005. Historical and social perspectives on the regulation of the international trade in archaeological objects: the examples of Greece and India. Vanderbilt J. Transnatl. Law 38:41051–66
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Brodie N. 2006. Smoke and mirrors. See Robson et al. 2006 1–14
  24. Brodie N. 2010. Archaeological looting and economic justice. Cultural Heritage Management: Policies and Issues in Global Perspective PM Messenger, GS Smith 261–77 Gainesville: Univ. Press Fla.
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Brodie N. 2011. Congenial bedfellows? The academy and the antiquities trade. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 27:4408–37
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Brodie N. 2014. The Internet market in Precolumbian antiquities. Cultural Property Crime: An Overview and Analysis on Contemporary Perspectives and Trends J Kila, M Balcells 237–62 Leiden: Brill
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Brodie N. 2015a. The Internet market in antiquities. See Desmarais 2015 11–20
  28. Brodie N. 2015b. Syria and its regional neighbors: a case of cultural property protection policy failure. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 22:2317–35
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Brodie N, Contreras D 2012. The economics of the looted archaeological site of Bâb edh-Dhrâ’: a view from Google Earth. See Lazrus & Barker 2012 9–24
  30. Brodie N, Dietzler J, Mackenzie S 2013. Trafficking in cultural objects: an empirical overview. Prevenzione e Contrasto dei Reati Contro il Patrimonio Culturale: La Dimensione Nazionale ed Internazionale S Manacorda, A Visconti 19–30 Milan: Vitae Pensiero
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Brodie N, Doole J, Renfrew C 2001. Trade in Illicit Antiquities: The Destruction of the World's Archaeological Heritage Cambridge, UK: McDonald Cent. Archaeol. Res.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Brodie N, Doole J, Watson P 2000. Stealing History: The Illicit Trade in Cultural Material Cambridge, UK: McDonald Cent. Archaeol. Res.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Brodie N, Kersel M, Luke C, Tubb K 2006. Archaeology, Cultural Heritage and the Antiquities Trade Gainesville: Univ. Press Fla.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Brodie N, Renfrew C 2005. Looting and the world's archaeological heritage: the inadequate response. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 34:343–61
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Brodie N, Tubb KW 2002. Illicit Antiquities: The Theft of Culture and the Extinction of Archaeology New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Brown MF. 2004. Who Owns Native Culture Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Bruhns K. 2000. www.plunderedpast.com. SAA Bull. 18:214–15,17
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Calvani S. 2009. Frequency and figures of organized crime in art and antiquities. See Manacorda 2009 28–38
  39. Campbell PB. 2013. The illicit antiquities trade as a transnational criminal network: characterizing and anticipating trafficking of cultural heritage. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 20:2113–53
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Cannon-Brookes P. 1994. Antiquities in the market-place: placing a price on documentation. Antiquity 68:349–50
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Casana J. 2015. Satellite imagery-based analysis of archaeological looting in Syria. Near East. Archaeol. 78:3142–52
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Casana J, Panahipour M 2014. Satellite-based monitoring of looting and damage to archaeological sites in Syria. J. East. Mediterr. Archaeol. Heritage Stud. 2:2128–51
    [Google Scholar]
  43. CECOJI-CNRA (Cent. Etud. Coop. Jurid. Int.–Cent. Natl. Rech. Sci.) 2011. Study on Preventing and Fighting Illicit Trafficking in Cultural Goods in the European Union Rep. Eur. Comm. Brussels: https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ca56cfac-ad6b-45ab-b940-e1a7fa4458db/language-en
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Chippindale C, Gill DWJ 2001. On-line auctions: a new venue for the antiquities market. Cult. Without Context 9:4–13
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Conklin JE. 1994. Art Crime Westport, CT: Praeger
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Contreras D. 2010. Huaqueros and remote sensing imagery: assessing looting damage in the Virú Valley, Peru. Antiquity 84:544–55
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Contreras DA, Brodie N 2010. The utility of publicly-available satellite imagery for investigating looting of archaeological sites in Jordan. J. Field Archaeol. 35:1101–14
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Cuno J. 2005. Museums, antiquities, cultural property and the USD legal framework for making acquisitions. See Fitz Gibbon 2005 143–57
  49. Cuno J. 2008. Who Owns Antiquity? Museums and the Battle Over Our Ancient Heritage Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Danti M. 2015. The finance of global terrorism through cultural property crime in Syria and Northern Iraq Written Statement Submitted for Testimony Before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs—Subcommittee on Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Trade (TNT). https://docs.house.gov/meetings/FA/FA18/20151117/104202/HHRG-114-FA18-Wstate-DantiM-20151117.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  51. DeAngelis IP. 2006. How much provenance is enough? Post-Schultz guidelines for art museum acquisition of archaeological materials and ancient art. Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice BT Hoffman 398–408 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Desmarais F 2015. Countering Illicit Traffic in Cultural Goods: The Global Challenge of Protecting the World's Heritage Paris: ICOM
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Dietzler J. 2007. The case for Cyprus: SAFE interviews Dr. Pavlos Flourentzos, Director of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus. Saving Antiquities for Everyone (SAFE) http://www.savingantiquities.org/author/jessica-dietzler
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Dietzler J. 2013. On ‘organized crime’ in the illicit antiquities trade: moving beyond the definitional debate. Trends Organized Crime 16:392–42
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Elia RJ. 1997. Looting, collecting, and the destruction of archaeological resources. Nonrenewable Resour 6:285–98
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Elia RJ. 2001. Analysis of the looting, selling, and collecting of Apulian red-figure vases: a quantitative approach. See Brodie et al. 2001 145–53
  57. Elia RJ. 2009. Mythology of the antiquities market. Cultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization, and Commerce JAR Nafziger, AM Nicgorski 239–56 Leiden, Neth.: Martinus Nijhoff
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Elkins NT. 2008. A survey of the material and intellectual consequences of trading in undocumented ancient coins: a case study on the North American trade. Frankf. Elektron. Rundsch. Altertumskunde 7:1–13
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Elkins NT. 2012. The trade in fresh supplies of ancient coins: scale, organization, and politics. See Lazrus & Barker 2012 91–108
  60. Elkins NT. 2015. Ancient coins, find spots, and import restrictions: a critique of arguments made in the Ancient Coin Collectors’ Guild “test case. .” J. Field Archaeol. 40:2236–43
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Emberling G. 2008. Archaeologists and the military in Iraq, 2003–2008: compromise or contribution. Archaeologies 4:3445–59
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Eriksen A. 2014. From Antiquities to Heritage: Transformations of Cultural Memory New York: Berghahn
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Fay E. 2011. Virtual artifacts: eBay, antiquities, and authenticity. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 27:4449–64
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Field L, Gnecco C, Watkins J 2016. Challenging the Dichotomy: The Licit and the Illicit in Archaeological and Heritage Discourses Tucson: Univ. Ariz. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Fitz Gibbon K 2005. Who Owns the Past? Cultural Policy, Cultural Property and the Law New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Francioni F, Gordley J 2013. Enforcing International Cultural Heritage Law Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Gado B. 2001. The Republic of Niger. See Brodie et al. 2001 57–72
  68. Gamboni D. 2007. The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the French Revolution Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Geismar H. 2013. Treasured Possessions: Indigenous Interventions into Cultural and Intellectual Property Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Gerstenblith P. 2004. Art, Cultural Heritage, and the Law Durham, NC: Carolina Acad.
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Gerstenblith P. 2010. The obligations contained in international treaties of armed forces to protect cultural heritage in times of armed conflict. Archeology, Cultural Property and the Military L Rush 4–14 Newcastle, UK: Boydell Press
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Gerstenblith P. 2012. Has the market in antiquities changed in light of recent legal developments. ? See Adler & Bruning 2012 67–84
  73. Gerstenblith P. 2013. Enforcement by domestic courts: criminal law and forfeiture in the recovery of cultural objects. See Francioni & Gordley 2013 150–76
  74. Gill D, Chippindale C 2006. From Boston to Rome: reflections on returning antiquities. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 13:311–31
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Gill DWJ. 2009. Looting matters for classical antiquities: contemporary issues in archaeological ethics. Present Pasts 1:77–104
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Gill DWJ, Chippindale C 1993. Material and intellectual consequences of esteem for cycladic figures. Am. J. Archaeol. 97:601–59
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Hamilakis Y. 2009. The “War on Terror” and the military–archaeology complex: Iraq, ethics, and neo-colonialism. Archaeologies 5:139–65
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Hamilakis Y, Duke P 2007. Archaeology and Capitalism: From Ethics to Politics Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Hanna M. 2015. Documenting looting activities in post-2011 Egypt. See Desmarais 2015 47–65
  80. Hardy S. 2015. Virtues impracticable and extremely difficult: the human rights of subsistence diggers. Ethics and the Archaeology of Violence A González-Ruibal, G Moshenska 229–39 New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Hardy SA. 2011. Interrogating archaeological ethics in conflict zones: cultural heritage work in Cyprus PhD Diss. Univ. Sussex
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Harmanşah Ö 2015. ISIS, heritage, and the spectacles of destruction in the global media. Near East. Archaeol. 78:3170–77
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Hartog F. 2005. Time and heritage. Mus. Int. 227 57:37–18
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Hartog F. 2015. Regimes of Historicity: Presentism and Experiences of Time New York: Columbia Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Heath DB. 1973. Economic aspects of commercial archaeology in Costa Rica. Am. Antiq. 38:3259–65
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Hicks R. 1997. Time crime: protecting the past for future generations. FBI Law Enforc. Bull. 66:1–10
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Hoffman S-L. 2016. François Hartog. Regimes of Historicity: Presentism and Experiences of Time. Am. Hist. Rev. 121:2535–36
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Hollowell J. 2002. The legal market in archaeological materials from Alaska's Bering Strait. J. Am. Archaeol./Rev. Arqueol. Am. 21:7–32
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Hollowell J. 2004. “Old things” on the loose: the legal market for archaeological materials from Alaska's Bering Strait PhD Diss. Indiana Univ. Bloomington:
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Hollowell J. 2006a. Moral arguments on subsistence digging. The Ethics of Archaeology C Scarre, G Scarre 69–93 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Hollowell J. 2006b. St. Lawrence Island's legal market in archaeological goods. See Brodie et al. 2006 98–132
  92. Hollowell J, Nicholas G 2009. Using ethnographic methods to articulate community-based conceptions of cultural heritage management. Public Archaeol 8:2–3141–60
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Holtorf CJ. 2001. Is the past a non-renewable resource?. Destruction and Conservation of Cultural Property R Layton, PG Stone, J Thomas 286–97 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Honan WH. 1995. Art for whose sake? Trading in antiquities; rare pre-Columbia relics, at any cost. New York Times July 31. http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/31/us/art-for-whose-sake-trading-in-antiquities-rare-pre-columbian-relics-at-any-cost.html?pagewanted=all
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Hritz C. 2008. Remote sensing of cultural heritage in Iraq: a case study of Isin. Am. Acad. Res. Inst. Iraq Newsl. 3:11–8
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Jonas H. 1984. The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Kane S. 2015. Archaeology and cultural heritage in post-revolution Libya. Near East. Archaeol. 78:3204–11
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Kelker NL, Bruhns KO 2009. Faking Ancient Mesoamerica Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Keller A. 2015. Documenting ISIL's antiquities trafficking Rep., US Dep. State Washington, DC: https://eca.state.gov/files/bureau/final_presentation_to_met_on_isil_antiquities_trafficking_for_das_keller_9.29.2015_.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Kersel M. 2013. Vandalism. Oxford Companion to Archaeology 3 NA Silberman, A Bauer, M Diaz-Andreu, C Holtorf, E Waterton 339–42 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Kersel MM. 2006. From the ground to the buyer: a market analysis of the trade in illegal antiquities. See Brodie et al. 2006 186–205
  102. Kiel K, Tedesco K 2011. Stealing history: how does provenance affect the price of antiquities? Res. Ser. Pap. 11–05 Dep. Econ. Fac., Coll. Holy Cross http://web.holycross.edu/RePEc/hcx/HC1105-Kiel-Tedesco_SellingHistory.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Kirkpatrick SD. 1992. The Lords of Sipan: A Tale of Pre-Inca Tombs, Archaeology, and Crime New York: William Morrow
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Kolrud K, Prusac M 2014. Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity Burlington, VT: Ashgate
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Kreder JA. 2010. The revolution in U.S. museums concerning the ethics of acquiring antiquities. Univ. Miami Law Rev. 64:997–1030
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Lasaponara R, Danese M, Masini N 2012. Satellite-based monitoring of archaeological looting in Peru. Satellite Remote Sensing: A New Tool for Archaeology R Lasaponara, N Masini 177–93 Berlin: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Lasaponara R, Masini N 2010. Facing the archaeological looting in Peru by using very high resolution satellite imagery and local spatial autocorrelation statistics. Proceedings of ICSSA, the 2010 International Conference on Computational Science and Its Application (Fukuoka, Japan, March 23–26, 2010) D Taniar, O Gervasi, B Murgante, E Pardede, BO Apduhan 261–69 Berlin: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Lawler A. 2001. Destruction in Mesopotamia. Science 293:32–41
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Lawler A. 2003. Looting savages new site. Science 302:974–75
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Lazrus PK, Barker AW 2012. All the King's Horses: Essays on the Impact of Looting and the Illicit Antiquities Trade on Our Knowledge of the Past Washington, DC: Soc. Am. Archaeol. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Lidington H. 2002. The role of the Internet in removing the “shackles of the saleroom”: anytime, anyplace, anything, anywhere. Public Archaeol 2:67–84
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Lobay G. 2009. Border controls in market countries as disincentives to antiquities looting at source? The US–Italy Bilateral Agreement 2001. See Mackenzie & Green 2009b 59–82
  113. Lowenthal D. 2005. Why sanctions seldom work: reflections on cultural property internationalism. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 12:393–424
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Luke C, Henderson J 2006. The plunder of the Ulúa Valley, Honduras, and a market analysis for its antiquities. See Brodie et al. 2006 147–72
  115. Luke C, Kersel M 2005. The antiquities market: a retrospective look and a look forward. J. Field Archaeol. 30:191–200
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Mackenzie S. 2005a. Dig a bit deeper: law, regulation and the illicit antiquities market. Br. J. Criminol. 45:249–68
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Mackenzie S. 2009. Identifying and preventing opportunities for organized crime in the international antiquities market. See Manacorda 41–61
  118. Mackenzie S, Green P 2009a. Criminalising the market in illicit antiquities: an evaluation of the Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003 in England and Wales. See Mackenzie & Green 2009b 145–70
  119. Mackenzie S, Green P 2009b. Criminology and Archaeology: Studies in Looted Antiquities Oxford, UK: Hart
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Mackenzie S, Yates D 2017. Trafficking cultural objects and human rights. The Routledge International Handbook of Criminology and Human Rights L Weber, E Fishwick, M Marmo 220–29 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Mackenzie SRM. 2005b. Going, Going, Gone: Regulating the Market in Illicit Antiquities Leicester, UK: Inst. Art and Law
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Manacorda S 2009. Organized Crime in Art and Antiquities New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Manacorda S. 2011. Criminal law protection of cultural heritage: an international perspective. Crime in the Art and Antiquities World: Illegal Trafficking in Cultural Property S Manacorda, D Chappell 17–50 New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Matsuda DJ. 1998a. The ethics of archaeology, subsistence digging, and artifact “looting” in Latin America: point muted counterpoint. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 7:187–97
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Matsuda D. 1998b. Subsistence digging in and around Belize PhD Diss. Union Inst.
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Matsuda D. 2005. Subsistence diggers. See Fitz Gibbon 2005 255–68
  127. Mende J. 2016. A Human Right to Culture and Identity? The Ambivalence of Group Rights London: Rowman and Littlefield
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Merryman JH. 2005. Cultural property internationalism. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 12:11–39
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Meyer KE. 1973. The Plundered Past: The Story of the Illegal International Traffic in Works of Art New York: Atheneum
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Miles MM. 2008. Art as Plunder: The Ancient Origins of Debate About Cultural Property New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Murowchick RE. 2013. ‘Despoiled of the garments of her civilization:’ problems and progress in archaeological heritage management in China. A Companion to Chinese Archaeology AP Underhill 13–34 Chichester, UK: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Muscarella OW. 2007. Archaeology and the plunder culture. Int. J. Classic. Tradit. 41:1/2221–34
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Nafziger JAR, Paterson R 2004. A blueprint for the development of cultural heritage law introduction. Art Antiq. Law 9:1–2
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Nørskov V. 2001. Greek vases for sale: some statistical evidence. See Brodie & Tubb 2002 23–37
  135. Nørskov V. 2002. Greek Vases in New Contexts: The Collecting and Trading of Greek Vases Aarhus, Den.: Aarhus Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  136. O'Keefe PJ. 1997. Trade in Antiquities: Reducing Destruction and Theft Paris: UNESCO/Archetype Books
    [Google Scholar]
  137. O'Reilly D. 2007. Shifting trends of heritage destruction in Cambodia: from temples to tombs. Hist. Environ. 20:212–16
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Owen DI. 2009. Censoring knowledge: the case for publication of unprovenanced cuneiform tablets. Whose Culture? The Promise of Museums and the Debate Over Antiquities J Cuno 125–42 Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Panella C. 2014. Looters or heroes? Production of illegality and memories of ‘looting’ in Mali. Eur. J. Crim. Policy Res. 20:487–502
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Parcak S, Gathings D, Childs C, Mumford G, Cline E 2016. Satellite evidence of archaeological site looting in Egypt: 2002–2013. Antiquity 90:349188–205
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Paredes Maury S. 1999. Surviving in the rain forest: the realities of looting in the rural villages of El Peten, Guatemala Rep. Found. Adv. Mesoam. Stud. Inc. Los Angeles: http://www.famsi.org/reports/95096/
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Plemmons D, Barker AW 2015. Anthropological Ethics in Context: An Ongoing Dialogue Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press/Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Powell EA. 2003. Cave looter solicits murder. Archaeology Jan. 27. http://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/nevadacave/
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Proulx BB. 2011a. Drugs, arms and arrowheads: theft from archaeological sites and the dangers of fieldwork. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 27:4500–22
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Proulx BB. 2011b. Organized criminal involvement in the illicit antiquities trade. Trends Organized Crime 14:11–29
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Rao V, Walton M 2004a. Culture and Public Action Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Rao V, Walton M 2004b. Culture and public action: relationality, equality of agency, and development. See Rao & Walton 2004a 3–36
  148. Renfrew C. 2000. Loot, Legitimacy and Ownership: The Ethical Crisis in Archaeology London: Duckworth
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Robson E, Treadwell L, Gosden C 2006. Who Owns Objects? The Ethics and Politics of Collecting Cultural Artefacts Oxford, UK: Oxbow
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Roosevelt C, Luke C 2006. Looting Lydia: the destruction of an archaeological landscape in western Turkey. See Brodie et al. 2006 173–87
  151. Shapiro D. 2005. Cultural property and the International Cultural Property Society. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 12:1–5
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Silverman H, Ruggles DF 2007. Cultural Heritage and Human Rights New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Smith C. 2015. Social media and the destruction of world heritage as global propaganda. Proceedings of the II International Conference on Best Practices in World Heritage: People and Communities A Castillo Mena 27–49 Madrid: Univ. Complut. Madrid, Serv. Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Smith C, Burke H, de Leiuen C, Jackson G 2015. The Islamic State's symbolic war: Da'esh's socially mediated terrorism as a threat to cultural heritage. J. Soc. Archaeol. 16:2164–88
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Smith KL. 2005. Looting and the politics of archaeological knowledge in Peru. Ethnos 79:2149–70
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Smith L. 2004. Archaeological Theory and the Politics of Cultural Heritage London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Staley DP. 1993. St Lawrence Island's subsistence diggers: a new perspective on human effects of archeological sites. J. Field Archaeol. 20:3347–55
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Stanish C. 2009. Forging ahead, or how I learned to stop worrying and love eBay. Archaeology 62:3 http://archive.archaeology.org/0905/etc/insider.html
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Stone E. 2008. Patterns of looting in southern Iraq. Antiquity 82:315125–38
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Stone PG. 2005. The identification and protection of cultural heritage during the Iraq conflict: a peculiarly English tale. Antiquity 79:933–43
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Stone PG. 2011. Introduction: the ethical challenges for cultural heritage experts working with the military. Cultural Heritage, Ethics and the Military PG Stone 1–28 Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Stone PG. 2013. Human rights and cultural property protection in times of conflict. Int. J. Heritage Stud. 18:3271–84
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Thompson E. 2014. Successes and failures of self-regulatory regimes governing museum holdings of Nazi-looted art and looted antiquities. Columbia J. Law Arts 37:3379–404
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Tompka P. 1998. Ancient coins as cultural property: a cause for concern. J. Int. Leg. Stud. 4:169–104
    [Google Scholar]
  165. Tunbridge JE, Ashworth GJ 1996. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as a Resource in Conflict New York: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  166. US Embassy Damascus 2015. Rewards for justice—reward offers for information that leads to disruption of financing of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) News Release, Sept. 29. https://sy.usembassy.gov/pr_09292015/
    [Google Scholar]
  167. US GAO (Gen. Account. Off.) 2016. Cultural property: protection of Iraqi and Syrian antiquities Rep. GAO-16–673 US GAO Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Vitelli KD. 1996. Archaeological Ethics Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Warring J. 2005. Underground debates: the fundamental differences of opinion that thwart UNESCO's progress in fighting the illicit trade in cultural property. Emory Int. Law Rev. 19:227–303
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Wartenberg Kagan U. 2015. Collecting coins and the conflict in Syria Rep. US Dep. State Washington, DC: https://eca.state.gov/files/bureau/wartenbergsyria-coincollecting.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  171. Watkins J. 2005. Through wary eyes: indigenous perspectives on archaeology. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 34:429–49
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Watson P, Todeschini C 2006. The Medici Conspiracy: The Illicit Journey of Looted Antiquities from Italy's Tomb Raiders to the World's Greatest Museums New York: Public Affairs
    [Google Scholar]
  173. Willett HD. 2016. Ill-gotten gains: a response to the Islamic State's profits from the illicit antiquities market. Ariz. Law Rev. 58:831–65
    [Google Scholar]
  174. Wolfinbarger S, Drake J, Ashcroft E, Hanson K 2014. Ancient history, modern destruction: assessing the current status of Syria's tentative world heritage sites using high-resolution satellite imagery. AAAS Blog Dec. https://www.aaas.org/page/ancient-history-modern-destruction-assessing-status-syria-s-tentative-world-heritage-sites-7
    [Google Scholar]
  175. Yates D. 2014. Church theft, insecurity, and community justice: the reality of source-end regulation of the market for illicit Bolivian cultural objects. Eur. J. Crim. Policy Res. 20:4445–57
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041320
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041320
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error