1932
0

Annual Review of Clinical Psychology

Volume 20, 2024

Prevalence Increases as Treatments Improve: An Evolutionary Perspective on the Treatment–Prevalence Paradox in Depression

Abstract

Depression is an eminently treatable disorder that responds to psychotherapy or medications; the efficacy of each has been established in hundreds of controlled trials. Nonetheless, the prevalence of depression has increased in recent years despite the existence of efficacious treatments—a phenomenon known as the treatment–prevalence paradox. We consider several possible explanations for this paradox, which range from a misunderstanding of the very nature of depression, inflated efficacy of the established treatments, and a lack of access to efficacious delivery of treatments. We find support for each of these possible explanations but especially the notion that large segments of the population lack access to efficacious treatments that are implemented as intended. We conclude by describing the potential of using lay therapists and digital technologies to overcome this lack of access and to reach historically underserved populations and simultaneously guarantee the quality of the interventions delivered.

Keyword(s): accessibility, ADMs, antidepressant medications, generalizability, major depressive disorder, MDD, psychotherapy, treatment–prevalence paradox
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442
2024-07-12
2025-06-18
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/clinpsy/20/1/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Andrews PW, Bharwania A, Lee KR, Fox M, Thomson JA Jr. 2015.. Is serotonin an upper or a downer? The evolution of the serotonergic system and its role in depression and the antidepressant response. . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 51::164–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.018
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  2. Andrews PW, Kornstein SG, Halberstadt LJ, Gardner CO, Neale MC. 2011.. Blue again: perturbational effects of antidepressants suggest monoaminergic homeostasis in major depression. . Front. Psychol. 2::159. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00159
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Andrews PW, Maslej MM, Thomson JA, Hollon SD. 2020.. Disordered doctors or rational rats? Testing adaptationist and disorder hypotheses for melancholic depression and their relevance for clinical psychology. . Clin. Psychol. Rev. 82::101927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101927
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. Andrews PW, Thomson JA. 2009.. The bright side of being blue: depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems. . Psychol. Rev. 116::620–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016242 Depression is an adaptation that evolved to facilitate complex problem solving in our ancestral past.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bailey RK, Mokonogho J, Kumar A. 2019.. Racial and ethnic differences in depression: current perspectives. . Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 15::603–9. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S128584
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Barton DA, Esler MD, Dawood T, Lambert EA, Haikerwal D, et al. 2008.. Elevated brain serotonin turnover in patients with depression. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 65::38–46
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. Belmaker RH, Agam G. 2008.. Major depressive disorder. . N. Engl. J. Med. 358::55–68
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. Brent DA, Brunwasser SM, Hollon SD, Weersing VR, Clarke GN, et al. 2015.. Effect of a cognitive-behavioral prevention program on depression 6 years after implementation among at-risk adolescents: a randomized clinical trial. . JAMA Psychiatry 72:(11):1110–18. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1559
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. Chisolm D, Sweeney K, Sheehan P, Rasmussen B, Smit F, et al. 2016.. Scaling up treatment of depression and anxiety: a global return on investment analysis. . Lancet Psychiatry 3::415–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30024-4
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. Cipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G, Chaimani A, Atkinson LZ, et al. 2018.. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. . Lancet 391:(10128):1357–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32802-7 Network meta-analysis shows all antidepressants to be more efficacious than placebo with no one superior to another.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. Clark DM. 2018.. Realizing the mass public benefit of evidence-based psychological therapies: the IAPT program. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 14::159–83. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084833
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cohen ZD, DeRubeis RJ. 2018.. Treatment selection in depression. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 14::209–36 Machine learning can identify the optimal modality for a given patient, making treatment more efficient.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  13. COVID-19 Ment. Disord. Collab. 2021.. Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. . Lancet 398::1700–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02143-7
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  14. Cuijpers P, Driessen E, Hollon SD, van Oppen P, Barth J, Andersson G. 2012.. The efficacy of non-directive supportive therapy for adult depression: a meta-analysis. . Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32:(4):280–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.01.003
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cuijpers P, Hollon SD, van Straten A, Bockting C, Berking M, Andersson G. 2013.. Does cognitive behaviour therapy have an enduring effect that is superior to keeping patients on continuation pharmacotherapy? A meta-analysis. . BMJ Open 3::e002542. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002542 Meta-analysis shows that cognitive therapy has an enduring effect that cuts relapse by half relative to medications following treatment termination.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cuijpers P, Karyotaki E, Ciharova M, Miguel C, Noma H, Furukawa TA. 2021.. The effects of psychotherapies for depression on response, remission, reliable change, and deterioration: a meta-analysis. . Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 144:(3):288–99
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  17. Cuijpers P, Noma H, Karyotaki E, Vinkers CH, Cipriani A, Furukawa TA. 2020.. A network meta-analysis of the effects of psychotherapies, pharmacotherapies and their combination in the treatment of adult depression. . World Psychiatry 19:(1):92–107. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20701
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  18. Cuijpers P, Weitz E, Lamers F, Penninx BW, Twisk J, et al. 2017.. Melancholic and atypical depression as predictor and moderator of outcome in cognitive behavior therapy and pharmacotherapy for adult depression. . Depress. Anxiety 34:(3):246–56
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  19. DeRubeis RJ, Cohen ZD, Forand NR, Fournier JC, Gelfand LA, Lorenzo-Luaces L. 2014.. The Personalized Advantage Index: translating research on prediction into individualized treatment recommendations. A demonstration. . PLOS ONE 9:(1):e83875
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. DeRubeis RJ, Hollon SD, Amsterdam JD, Shelton RC, Young PR, et al. 2005.. Cognitive therapy versus medications in the treatment of moderate to severe depression. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62::409–16. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.4.409
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  21. Dimidjian S, Hollon SD, Dobson KS, Schmaling KB, Kohlenberg RJ, et al. 2006.. Randomized trial of behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and antidepressant medication in the acute treatment of adults with major depression. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 74::658–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.4.658
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  22. Dobson KS, Hollon SD, Dimidjian S, Schmaling KB, Kohlenberg RJ, et al. 2008.. Randomized trial of behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and antidepressant medication in the prevention of relapse and recurrence in major depression. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 76::468–77. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.3.468
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  23. Driessen E, Cuijpers P, Hollon SD, Dekker JJM. 2010.. Does pretreatment severity moderate the efficacy of psychological treatment of adult outpatient depression? A meta-analysis. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 78::668–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020570
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  24. Driessen E, Hollon SD, Bockting CLH, Cuijpers P, Turner EH. 2015.. Does publication bias inflate the apparent efficacy of psychological treatment for major depressive disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis of US National Institutes of Health-funded trials. . PLOS ONE 10:(9):e0137864
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  25. Eaton WW, Shao H, Nestadt G, Lee BH, Bienvenu OJ, Zandi P. 2008.. Population-based study of first onset and chronicity in major depressive disorder. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 65:(5):513–20. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.513
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  26. Eg R, Tønnesen ÖD, Tennfjord MK. 2023.. A scoping review of personalized user experiences on social media: the interplay between algorithms and human factors. . Comput. Hum. Behav. Rep. 9::100253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100253
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  27. Elkin I, Shea MT, Watkins JT, Imber SD, Sotsky SM, et al. 1989.. National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program: general effectiveness of treatments. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 46::971–82
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  28. Ettman CK, Abdalla SM, Cohen GH, Sampson L, Vivier PM, Galea S. 2020.. Prevalence of depression symptoms in US adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. . JAMA Netw. Open 3:(9):e2019686. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. Ezawa ID, Hollon SD, Robinson N. 2023.. Examining predictors of depression and anxiety symptom change in Cognitive Behavioral Immersion: an observational study. . JMIR Ment. Health 10::e42377. https://doi.org/10.2196/42377
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  30. Ezawa ID, Strunk DR. 2022.. Differences in the delivery of cognitive behavioral therapy for depression when therapists work with Black and White patients. . Cogn. Ther. Res. 46::104–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-021-10254-0
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. Fonagy P, Rost F, Carlyle JA, McPherson S, Thomas R, et al. 2015.. Pragmatic randomized controlled trial of long-term psychoanalytic psychotherapy for treatment-resistant depression: the Tavistock Adult Depression Study (TADS). . World Psychiatry 14::312–21
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. Fournier JC, DeRubeis RJ, Hollon SD, Dimidjian S, Amsterdam JD, et al. 2010.. Antidepressant drug effects and depression severity: a patient-level meta-analysis. . JAMA 303::47–53. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1943 Individual patient data meta-analysis shows that antidepressant medications only separate from pill-placebo among patients with more severe depressions.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  33. Fournier JC, DeRubeis RJ, Shelton RC, Gallop R, Amsterdam JD, Hollon SD. 2008.. Antidepressant medications versus cognitive therapy in depressed patients with or without personality disorder. . Br. J. Psychiatry 192::124–29. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.037234
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. Fournier JC, DeRubeis RJ, Shelton RC, Hollon SD, Amsterdam JD, Gallop R. 2009.. Prediction of response to medication and cognitive therapy in the treatment of moderate to severe depression. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 77::775–87
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. Frank E, Prien RF, Jarrett RB, Keller MB, Kupfer DJ, et al. 1991.. Conceptualization and rationale for consensus definition of terms in major depressive disorders: remission, recovery, relapse, and recurrence. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48::851–55. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810330075011
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. Furukawa TA, Noma H, Caldwell DM, Honyashiki M, Shinohara K, et al. 2014.. Waiting list may be a nocebo condition in psychotherapy trials: a contribution from network meta-analysis. . Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 130:(3):181–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12275
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Garber J, Clarke GN, Weersing VR, Beardslee WR, Brent DA, et al. 2009.. Prevention of depression in at-risk adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. . JAMA 301::2215–24. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.788
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  38. Gaynes BN, Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Balasubramani GK, et al. 2008.. Primary versus specialty care outcomes for depressed outpatients managed with measurement-based care: results from STAR*D. . J. Gen. Intern. Med. 23:(5):551–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-008-0522-3
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. Gilbert P. 2006.. Evolution and depression: issues and implications. . Psychol. Med. 36::287–97
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. Goodwin RD, Dierker LC, Wu M, Galea S, Hoven CW, Weinberger AH. 2022.. Trends in U.S. depression prevalence from 2015 to 2020: the widening treatment gap. . Am. J. Prev. Med. 63:(5):726–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2022.05.014
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. Hagen EH. 2002.. Depression as bargaining: the case postpartum. . Evol. Hum. Behav. 23::323–36
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  42. Hankin BL, Abramson LY. 2001.. Development of gender differences in depression: an elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. . Psychol. Bull. 127:(6):773–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  43. Hardeveld F, Spijker J, De Graaf R, Nolen WA, Beekman ATF. 2013.. Recurrence of major depressive disorder and its predictors in the general population: results from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study (NEMESIS). . Psychol. Med. 43::39–48. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712002395
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. Hollon SD. 2020.. Is cognitive therapy enduring or antidepressant medications iatrogenic? Depression as an evolved adaptation. . Am. Psychol. 75:(9):1207–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000728
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. Hollon SD, Andrews PW, Keller MC, Singla DR, Maslej MM, Mulsant B. 2021a.. Combining psychotherapy and medications: It's all about the squids and sea bass (at least for nonpsychotic patients). . In Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change, ed. M Barkham, W Lutz, LG Castonguay , pp. 705–38. New York:: Wiley. , 3rd ed..
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Hollon SD, Andrews PW, Singla DR, Marta MM, Mulsant BH. 2021b.. Evolutionary theory and the treatment of depression: It is all about the squids and the sea bass. . Behav. Res. Ther. 143::103849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103849
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. Hollon SD, Areán PA, Craske MG, Crawford KA, Kivlahan DR, et al. 2014a.. Development of clinical practice guidelines. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 10::213–41. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185529
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  48. Hollon SD, DeRubeis RJ, Fawcett J, Amsterdam JD, Shelton RC, et al. 2014b.. Effect of cognitive therapy with antidepressant medications versus antidepressants alone on the rate of recovery in major depressive disorder: a randomized clinical trial. . JAMA Psychiatry 71:(10):1157–64. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1054
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. Hollon SD, DeRubeis RJ, Shelton RC, Amsterdam JD, Salomon RM, et al. 2005.. Prevention of relapse following cognitive therapy versus medications in moderate to severe depression. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62::417–22. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.4.417
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. Hollon SD, Thase ME, Markowitz JC. 2002.. Treatment and prevention of depression. . Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 3::39–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.00008
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. Horowitz JL, Garber J. 2006.. The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: a meta-analytic review. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 74:(3):401–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.401
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. Horowitz JL, Garber J, Ciesla JA, Young JF, Mufson L. 2007.. Prevention of depressive symptoms in adolescents: a randomized trial of cognitive-behavioral and interpersonal prevention programs. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 75:(5):693–706
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  53. Hyman SE, Nestler EJ. 1996.. Initiation and adaptation: a paradigm for understanding psychotropic drug action. . Am. J. Psychiatry 153:(2):151–62. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.2.151
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  54. Jia H, Guerin RJ, Barile JP, Okun AH, McKnight-Eily L, et al. 2021.. National and state trends in anxiety and depression severity scores among adults during the COVID-19 pandemic—United States, 2020–2021. . Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 70:(40):1427–32
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. Kahneman D. 2011.. Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York:: Farrar, Straus and Giroux
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Karyotaki E, Efthimiou O, Miguel C, Maas genannt Bermpohl F, Furukawa TA, et al. 2021.. Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for depression: a systematic review and individual patient data network meta-analysis. . JAMA Psychiatry 78:(4):361–71. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4364
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas MR, Walters EE. 2005.. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Replication Study. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62::593–602
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  58. Kessler RC, van Loo HM, Wardenaar KJ, Bossarte RM, Brenner LA. 2017.. Using patient self-reports to study heterogeneity of treatment effects in major depressive disorder. . Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 26::22–36. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000020
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  59. Klinger E. 1975.. Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. . Psychol. Rev. 82:(1):1–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076171
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  60. Kupfer DJ. 1991.. Long-term treatment of depression. . J. Clin. Psychiatry 52:(Suppl. 5):S28–34
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Kuyken W, Ball S, Crane C, Ganguli P, Jones B, et al. 2023.. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: the MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial. . BMC Ment. Health 25:(3):99–109. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kuyken W, Warren FC, Taylor RS, Whalley B, Crane C. 2016.. Efficacy of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in the prevention of depressive relapse: an individual patient data meta-analysis from randomized trials. . JAMA Psychiatry 73:(6):565–74
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  63. Leykin Y, Amsterdam JD, DeRubeis RJ, Gallop R, Shelton RC, Hollon SD. 2007.. Progressive resistance to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor but not to cognitive therapy in the treatment of major depression. . J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 75::267–76
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  64. Leykin Y, DeRubeis RJ. 2009.. Allegiance in psychotherapy outcome research: separating association from bias. . Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 16::54–65
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  65. Luborsky L, Diguer L, Seligman DA, Rosenthal R, Krause ED, et al. 1999.. The researcher's own therapy allegiance: a “wild card” in comparisons of treatment efficacy. . Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 6::95–106. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.6.1.95
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Maples-Keller JL, Bunnell BE, Kim S-J, Rothbaum BO. 2017.. The use of virtual reality technology in the treatment of anxiety and other psychiatric disorders. . Harvard Rev. Psychiatry 25:(3):103–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000138
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  67. Marcus SC, Olfson M. 2010.. National trends in the treatment for depression from 1998 to 2007. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67:(12):1265–73. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.151
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  68. Mattisson C, Bogren M, Horstmann V, Munk-Jörgensen P, Nettelbladt P. 2007.. The long-term course of depressive disorders in the Lundby Study. . Psychol. Med. 37::883–91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707000074
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  69. McHugh RK, Whitton SW, Peckham AD, Welge JA, Otto MW. 2013.. Patient preference for psychological versus pharmacological treatment of psychiatric disorders: a meta-analytic review. . J. Clin. Psychol. 74:(6):595–602. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12r07757
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Mellers B, Hertwig R, Kahneman D. 2001.. Do frequency representations eliminate conjunction effects? An exercise in adversarial collaboration. . Psychol. Sci. 12:(4):269–75
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  71. Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Taylor A, Kokaua J, Milne BJ, et al. 2010.. How common are common mental disorders? Evidence that lifetime prevalence rates are doubled by prospective versus retrospective ascertainment. . Psychol. Med. 40::899–909. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709991036
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  72. Mojtabai R, Olfson M. 2011.. Proportion of antidepressants prescribed without a psychiatric diagnosis is growing. . Health Aff. 30:(8):1434–42. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2010.1024
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  73. Monroe SM, Anderson SF, Harkness KL. 2019.. Life stress and major depression: the mysteries of recurrences. . Psychol. Rev. 126:(6):791–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000157
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  74. Monroe SM, Harkness KL. 2022.. Major depression and its recurrences: Life course matters. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 18::329–57. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072220-021440 Prospective cohort studies show considerably higher incidence of depression than suspected with additional cases nonrecurrent.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  75. Moore TJ, Mattison DR. 2017.. Adult utilization of psychiatric drugs and distribution by sex, age, and race. . JAMA Intern. Med. 177::274–75. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.7507
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  76. Mynors-Wallis LM, Gath DH, Lloyd-Thomas AR, Tomlinson D. 1995.. Randomized controlled trial comparing problem solving treatment with amitriptyline and placebo for major depression in primary care. . BMJ 310::441–45
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. Nesse RM. 2000.. Is depression an adaptation?. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57::14–20
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  78. Notaney S. 2023.. Roblox reports February 2023 key metrics. . Roblox. https://ir.roblox.com/news/news-details/2023/Roblox-Reports-February-2023-Key-Metrics/default.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
  79. NICE (Natl. Inst. Health Care Excell.). 2018.. Depression in Adults: Treatment and Management: First-Line Treatment for More Severe Depression 2018. Clin. Guidel. , Natl. Inst. Health Clin. Excell., London, UK:
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Olfson M, Marcus SC, Druss B, Pincus HA. 2002.. National trends in the outpatient treatment of depression. . JAMA 287::203–9. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.1914
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  81. Ormel J, Hollon SD, Kessler RC, Cuijpers P, Monroe SM. 2022.. More treatment but no less depression: the treatment-prevalence paradox. . Clin. Psychol. Rev. 91::102111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102111 Explores various possible reasons why prevalence has not dropped with the advent of efficacious treatments.
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  82. Ortiz-Ospina E. 2019.. The rise of social media. . Our World in Data, Sept. 2019. https://ourworldindata.org/rise-of-social-media
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Patel V, Chowdhary N, Rahman A, Verdeli H. 2011.. Improving access to psychological treatments: lessons from developing countries. . Behav. Res. Ther. 49:(9):523–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.06.012
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  84. Patel V, Weobong B, Weiss HA, Anand A, Bhat B, et al. 2017.. The Healthy Activity Program (HAP), a lay counsellor-delivered brief psychological treatment for severe depression, in primary care in India: a randomised controlled trial. . Lancet 389::176–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31589-6
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. Post R. 1992.. Transduction of psychosocial stress into the neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. . Am. J. Psychiatry 149::999–1010
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. Robinson N, Mahapatra A, Jean-Baptiste B, Mallard A, Yang A, et al. 2023.. Cognitive Behavioral Immersion for substance use disorders: a feasibility and pilot study of a peer-based coaching program in the metaverse. . Games Health J. 12:(5):397–404. https://doi.org/10.1089/g4h.2022.0214
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. Rose AJ, Glick GC, Smith RL, Schwartz-Mette RA, Borowski SK. 2017.. Co-rumination exacerbates stress generation among adolescents with depressive symptoms. . J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 45::985–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0205-1
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  88. Rush AJ, Kraemer HC, Sackeim HA, Fava M, Trivedi MH, et al. 2006a.. Report by the ACNP Task Force on response and remission in major depressive disorder. . Neuropsychopharmacology 31::1841–53
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  89. Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Nierenberg AA, Stewart JW, et al. 2006b.. Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: a STAR*D report. . Am. J. Psychiatry 163::1905–17. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.11.1905
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. Sevcikova M, Maslej MM, Stipl J, Andrews PW, Pastrnak M, et al. 2020.. Testing the analytical rumination hypothesis: exploring the longitudinal effects of problem-solving analysis on depression. . Front. Psychol. 11::1344. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01344
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  91. Singla DR, Kohrt BA, Murray LK, Anand A, Chorpita BF, Patel V. 2017.. Psychological treatments for the world: lessons from low- and middle-income countries. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 13::149–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045217
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  92. Singla DR, MacKinnon DP, Fuhr DC, Sikander S, Rahman A, Patel V. 2021.. Multiple mediation analysis of the peer-delivered Thinking Healthy Programme for perinatal depression: findings from two parallel, randomised controlled trials. . Br. J. Psychiatry 218:(3):143–50. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2019.184
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. Singla DR, Weobong B, Nadkarni A, Chowdhary N, Shinde S, et al. 2014.. Improving the scalability of psychological treatments in developing countries: an evaluation of peer-led therapy quality assessment in Goa, India. . Behav. Res. Ther. 60::53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.06.006
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  94. Solomon DA, Keller MB, Leon AC, Mueller TI, Lavori PW, et al. 2000.. Multiple recurrences of major depressive disorder. . Am. J. Psychiatry 157::229–33
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  95. Stone DA, Conteh JA, Francis JD. 2017.. Therapeutic factors and psychological concepts in Alcoholics Anonymous. . J. Couns. Pract. 8:(2):120–35. https://doi.org/10.22229/nav074629
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Syme KL, Hagen EH. 2020.. Mental health is biological health: why tackling “diseases of the mind” is an imperative for biological anthropology in the 21st century. . Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 171:(Suppl. 70):87–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23965
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  97. Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Crismon MLT, Kashner TM, Toprac MG, et al. 2004.. Clinical results for patients with major depressive disorder in the Texas Medication Algorithm Project. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61:(7):669–80. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.7.669
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  98. Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R. 2008.. Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. . N. Engl. J. Med. 358::252–60
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  99. van der Lem R, van der Wee NJA, van Veen T, Zitman FG. 2012.. Efficacy versus effectiveness: a direct comparison of the outcome of treatment for mild to moderate depression in randomized controlled trials and daily practice. . Psychother. Psychosom. 81:(4):226–34. https://doi.org/10.1159/000330890
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  100. van Ginneken N, Chin WY, Lim YC, Ussif A, Singh R, . 2021.. Primary-level worker interventions for the care of people living with mental disorders and distress in low- and middle-income countries. . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2021:(8):CD009149. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009149.pub3
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Weitz ES, Hollon SD, Twisk J, van Straten A, Huibers MJH, et al. 2015.. Baseline depression severity as moderator of depression outcomes between CBT versus pharmacotherapy: an individual patient data meta-analysis. . JAMA Psychiatry 72:(11):1102–9. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1516
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. Witmer BG, Singer MJ. 1998.. Measuring presence in virtual environments: a presence questionnaire. . Presence 7:(3):225–40. https://doi.org/10.1162/105474698565686
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442
Loading
Prevalence Increases as Treatments Improve: An Evolutionary Perspective on the Treatment–Prevalence Paradox in Depression
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 20, 201 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-080822-040442
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error