1932

Abstract

This review assesses the current state of knowledge about monetary sanctions, e.g., fines, fees, surcharges, restitution, and any other financial liability related to contact with systems of justice, which are used more widely than prison, jail, probation, or parole in the United States. The review describes the most important consequences of the punishment of monetary sanctions in the United States, which include a significant capacity for exacerbating economic inequality by race, prolonged contact and involvement with the criminal justice system, driver's license suspension, voting restrictions, damaged credit, and incarceration. Given the lack of consistent laws and policies that govern monetary sanctions, jurisdictions vary greatly in their imposition, enforcement, and collection practices of fines, fees, court costs, and restitution. A review of federally collected data on monetary sanctions reveals that a lack of consistent and exhaustive measures of monetary sanctions presents a unique problem for tracking both the prevalence and amount of legal financial obligations (LFOs) over time. We conclude with promising directions for future research and policy on monetary sanctions.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-091915
2018-01-13
2024-12-08
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/1/1/annurev-criminol-032317-091915.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-091915&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adamson CR. 1983. Punishment after slavery: southern state penal systems, 1865–1890. Soc. Probl. 30:5555–69 http://socpro.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/doi/10.2307/800272 [Google Scholar]
  2. Alameda Cty. Board Superv. 2016. Resolution No. 2016-66: a resolution placing a moratorium on the assessment and collection of all juvenile probation fees and the juvenile public defender fee. March 29
  3. Am. Civ. Lib. Union. 2010. In For A Penny. The Rise of America's New Debtors’ Prisons. New York: ACLU https://www.aclu.org/report/penny-rise-americas-new-debtors-prisons [Google Scholar]
  4. Am. Civ. Lib. Union. 2015a. Debtors’ Prisons New York: ACLU https://www.aclu.org/issues/racial-justice/race-and-criminal-justice/debtors-prisons [Google Scholar]
  5. Am. Civ. Lib. Union. 2015b. LD 951 Will End Jail Time for Being Too Poor to Pay Fines New York: ACLU https://www.aclu.org/news/aclu-maine-calls-legislature-end-debtors-prisons [Google Scholar]
  6. Am. Civ. Lib. Union. La. 2015. Louisiana's Debtors Prisons: An Appeal to Justice New Orleans, LA: ACLU La https://www.laaclu.org/en/publications/louisianas-debtors-prisons-appeal-justice [Google Scholar]
  7. Am. Civ. Lib. Union. Wash. Columbia Leg. Serv. 2014. Modern-Day Debtors’ Prisons: The Ways Court-Imposed Debts Punish People for Being Poor Seattle, WA: ACLU Wash http://www.columbialegal.org/sites/default/files/ModernDayDebtorsPrison.pdf [Google Scholar]
  8. Back Road Calif. 2016. Stopped, Fined, Arrested: Racial Bias in Policing and Traffic Courts in California BOTRCA http://www.lccr.com/wp-content/uploads/Stopped_Fined_Arrested_BOTRCA.pdf [Google Scholar]
  9. Bannon A, Nagrecha M, Diller R. 2010. Criminal Justice Debt: A Barrier to Reentry New York: New York Univ. School Law Brennan Cent. Justice [Google Scholar]
  10. Bearden v. Georgia, 461 U.S. 660 1983.
  11. Beckett K, Harris A. 2011. On cash and conviction: monetary sanctions as misguided policy. Criminol. Public Policy. 10:3509–37 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bersani B, Chapple C. 2007. School failure as an adolescent turning point. Sociol. Focus 40:370–91 [Google Scholar]
  13. Biloxi Munic. Court. 2016. Biloxi Municipal Court Procedures for Legal Financial Obligations & Community Biloxi, MS: Biloxi Muni. Court [Google Scholar]
  14. Blackmon DA. 2009. Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II New York: Anchor Books, 1st ed.. [Google Scholar]
  15. Blakke D. 2009. Payment of court-related fees, charges, costs, fines, and other monetary penalties in hillsborough county Annu. Assess. Collect. Rep. Hillsborough Cty. Clerk Courts Tampa, FL: [Google Scholar]
  16. Bur. Justice Stat. 1997. Criminal Justice System Flowchart Washington, DC: US Dep. Justice https://www.bjs.gov/content/largechart.cfm [Google Scholar]
  17. Comfort M. 2008. Doing Time Together: Love and Family in the Shadow of the Prison Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  18. Comfort M. 2016. A twenty-hour-a-day job: the repercussive effects of frequent low-level criminal justice involvement on family life. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 665:63–79 [Google Scholar]
  19. deVuono-Powell S, Schweidler C, Walters A, Zohrabi A. 2015. Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families Oakland, CA: Ella Baker Cent. Forw. Together Res. Action Des http://whopaysreport.org/ [Google Scholar]
  20. Ewert S, Sykes B, Pettit B. 2014. The degree of disadvantage: incarceration and inequality in education. Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci. 651:24–43 [Google Scholar]
  21. Frase RS. 2001. Sentencing in Germany and the United States: Comparing Äpfel with Apples Freiburg im Breisgau, Germ.: Max-Planck-Inst. For. Int. Crim. Law [Google Scholar]
  22. Fredericksen A, Lassiter L. 2016. Disenfranchised by Debt: Millions Impoverished by Prison, Blocked from Voting Seattle, WA: Alliance Just Soc http://allianceforajustsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Disenfranchised-by-Debt-FINAL-3.8.pdf [Google Scholar]
  23. Gist NE. 1996. How to use structured fines (day fines) as an intermediate sanction Bur. Justice Assist. Rep. NCJ 156242, US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: [Google Scholar]
  24. Gordon MA, Glaser D. 1991. The use and effects of financial penalties in municipal courts. Criminology 29:4651–76 [Google Scholar]
  25. Gov. Account. Office (GAO). 2015. State and local governments’ fiscal outlook, 2015 update GAO Rep. GAO-16-260SP GAO Washington D.C: http://www.gao.gov/assets/680/674205.pdf [Google Scholar]
  26. Green E. 1961. Judicial Attitudes in Sentencing New York: St. Martin's Press [Google Scholar]
  27. Greene J. 1988. Preliminary Data Report: Day-Fine Pilot Project New York: VERA Inst. Justice https://storage.googleapis.com/vera-web-assets/downloads/Publications/preliminary-data-report-day-fine-pilot-project/legacy_downloads/1524b.pdf [Google Scholar]
  28. Hager E. 2015. Debtors' Prisons, Then and Now: FAQ New York: Marshall Proj https://www.themarshallproject.org/2015/02/24/debtors-prisons-then-and-now-faq [Google Scholar]
  29. Harris A, Huebner B, Martin K, Pattillo M, Pettit B. et al. 2017. Debtors’ Experiences with Monetary Sanctions New York: Laura John Arnold Found In press [Google Scholar]
  30. Harris A, Huebner B, Martin K, Pattillo M, Pettit B. et al. 2016. Multi-State Study of Monetary Sanctions New York: Laura John Arnold Found. [Google Scholar]
  31. Harris A. 2016. A Pound of Flesh: Monetary Sanctions as Punishment for the Poor New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  32. Harris A, Evans H, Beckett K. 2011. Courtesy stigma and monetary sanctions: toward a socio-cultural theory of punishment. Am. Sociol. Rev. 76:2234–64 [Google Scholar]
  33. Harris A, Evans H, Beckett K. 2010. Drawing blood from stones: legal debt and social inequality in the contemporary United States. Am. J. Sociol. 115:61753–99 [Google Scholar]
  34. Hartney C, Vuong L. 2009. Created Equal: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the US Criminal Justice System Oakland: Natl. Counc. Crime Delinq http://www.nccdglobal.org/sites/default/files/publication_pdf/created-equal.pdf [Google Scholar]
  35. Harvey T, McAnnar J, Voss MJ, Conn M, Janda S, Keskey S. 2014. ArchCity Defenders: Municipal Courts White Paper St. Louis: ArchCity Defenders http://www.archcitydefenders.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ArchCity-Defenders-Municipal-Courts-Whitepaper.pdf [Google Scholar]
  36. Hillsman S. 1990. Fines and day fines. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 12 M Tonry, N Morris Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  37. Hillsman ST, Mahoney B. 1988. Collecting and enforcing criminal fines: a review of court processes, practices, and problems. Justice Syst. J. 13:17–3690–92 [Google Scholar]
  38. Hitt J. 2015. Police shootings won't stop unless we also stop shaking down black people: the dangers of turning police officers into revenue generators. Mother Jones Sept./Oct., http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2015/07/police-shootings-traffic-stops-excessive-fines/ [Google Scholar]
  39. Kalleberg A. 2011. Good Jobs, Bad Jobs: The Rise of Polarized and Precarious Employment Systems in the United States, 1970s–2000s New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  40. Kantorowicz-Reznichenko E. 2015. Day fines: Should the rich pay more?. Rev. Law Econ. 11:481–501 [Google Scholar]
  41. Kleck G. 1981. Racial discrimination in criminal sentencing: a critical evaluation of the evidence with additional evidence on the death penalty. Am. Sociol. Rev. 46:6783–805 [Google Scholar]
  42. Knowles D. 2015. Broke because of traffic ticket revenue drop: the news that the court faces a $1.4 million shortfall comes amid a debate over the role of municipal violations. Bloomberg Politics March 24 [Google Scholar]
  43. Maass D. 2016. “No cost” license plate readers are turning Texas police into mobile debt collectors and data miners. Electronic Frontier Foundation Jan. 26, https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/01/no-cost-license-plate-readers-are-turning-texas-police-mobile-debt-collectors-and [Google Scholar]
  44. Mahoney B. July 1995. The Ventura Day Fine Pilot Project: A Report on the Planning Process and the Decision to Terminate the Project, With Recommendations Concerning Future Development of Fines Policy Denver, CO: Justice Management Institute [Google Scholar]
  45. Mawajdeh H. 2016. New license plate reader could make Texas cops debt collectors, too. Texas Standard Febr. 2, http://www.texasstandard.org/stories/new-license-plate-reader-could-make-texas-cops-debt-collectors-too/ [Google Scholar]
  46. Martin K. 2018. Monetary myopia: an examination of institutional response to revenue from monetary sanctions for misdemeanors. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. In press [Google Scholar]
  47. Martin K, Smith SS, Still W. 2016. Shackled to debt: criminal justice financial obligations and the barriers to reentry they create New Think. Commun. Correct. Bull. Natl. Inst. Justice Washington, DC: [Google Scholar]
  48. McLean R, Thompson M. 2007. Repaying Debts New York: Counc. State Gov. Justice Cent. [Google Scholar]
  49. Mitchell O. 2005. A meta-analysis of race and sentencing research: explaining the inconsistencies. J. Quant. Criminol. 21:439–66 [Google Scholar]
  50. Miss. Code § 99–19–73 2015.
  51. Montgomery L. 2017. National Task Force of Judicial Leaders Releases Resources to Aid State Courts Williamsburg, VA: Natl. Cent. State Courts. http://www.ncsc.org/Newsroom/News-Releases/2017/Fines-Fees-Task-From-Resources.aspx [Google Scholar]
  52. Morris N, Tonry MH. 1990. Between Prison and Probation: Intermediate Punishments in a Rational Sentencing System New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  53. Natl. Inst. Justice. 1992. Day fines in American courts: the Staten Island and Milwaukee experiments Natl. Inst. Justice Rep. NCJ 136611, US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: [Google Scholar]
  54. Nieto M. 2006. Who Pays for Penalty Assessment Programs in California? Sacramento, CA: Calif. Res. Bur. [Google Scholar]
  55. Office City Audit. 2011. Report to the City Council: City of San Jose. Traffic citation revenue: revenue has declined over the last five years and the city continues to receive a small share of the revenue. City Audit. Rep. 11-06 Office City Audit. San Jose, CA:
  56. O'Malley P. 2009a. The Currency of Justice: Fines and Damages in Consumer Societies New York, NY: Routledge-Cavendish [Google Scholar]
  57. O'Malley P. 2009b. Theorizing Fines. Punishm. Soc. 11:167–83 [Google Scholar]
  58. O'Malley P. 2011. Politicizing the case for fines. Criminol. Public Policy 10:3547–53 [Google Scholar]
  59. Oshinsky DM. 1997. “Worse than Slavery”: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice 1 New York: Free Press [Google Scholar]
  60. Pager D. 2007. Marked: Race, Crime, and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press [Google Scholar]
  61. Pager D, Western B. 2009. Investigating prisoner reentry: the impact of conviction status on the employment prospects of young men Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 156242, US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: [Google Scholar]
  62. Peterson R, Krivo L. 2010. Divergent Social Worlds: Neighborhood Crime and the Racial-Spatial Divide New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  63. Pettit B. 2012. Invisible Men: Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress NY: Russell Sage Foundation [Google Scholar]
  64. Pettit B, Western B. 2004. Mass imprisonment and the life-course: race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69:151–69 [Google Scholar]
  65. Piquero A, Jennings W. 2016. Research note: Justice system-imposed financial penalties increase the likelihood of recidivism in a sample of adolescent offenders. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 15:3325–40 [Google Scholar]
  66. Pollock F, Maitland FW. 1895. The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I 1 Cambridge, UK: Press Archive [Google Scholar]
  67. Pretr. Serv. Resour. Cent. 2013. National Pretrial Reporting Program, 1988–1989 (ICPSR 09508) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR09508.v3 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  68. Pretr. Serv. Resour. Cent. 2011a. National Pretrial Reporting Program, 1990–1991 (ICPSR 06136) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06136.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  69. Pretr. Serv. Resour. Cent. 2011b. National Pretrial Reporting Program, 1992–1993 (ICPSR 06489) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06489.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  70. Regnier C. 2015. America cannot lock its poor in debtor's prisons to fund its police departments. The Guardian May 26, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/may/26/america-cannot-lock-its-poor-in-debtors-prisons-to-fund-its-police-departments [Google Scholar]
  71. Reynolds C, Hall J. 2011. Courts Are Not Revenue Centers Williamsburg, VA: COSCA [Google Scholar]
  72. Ruback BR, Clark V. 2011. Economic sanctions in Pennsylvania: complex and inconsistent. Duquesne Law Rev 49:751–85 [Google Scholar]
  73. Ruback RB, Shaffer JN, Logue MA. 2004. The imposition and effects of restitution in four Pennsylvania counties: effects of size of county and specialized collection units. Crime Delinq 50:2168–88 [Google Scholar]
  74. Schlesinger T. 2005. Racial and ethnic disparity in pretrial criminal processing. Justice Q 22:2170–192 [Google Scholar]
  75. Shapiro J. 2014. Supreme Court ruling not enough to prevent debtors prisons. National Public Radio May 21, http://www.npr.org/2014/05/21/313118629/supreme-court-ruling-not-enough-to-prevent-debtors-prisons [Google Scholar]
  76. Sichel J. 1982. Federal Statutory Law Relating to Fines in Criminal Cases, Fines in Sentencing Working Paper #3 New York: VERA Inst. Justice [Google Scholar]
  77. Simmons A. 2014. Georgia towns are getting rich off speeding tickets. Tribune News Service Oct. 23, http://www.governing.com/topics/finance/georgia-towns-are-getting-rich-off-speeding-tickets.html [Google Scholar]
  78. South. Cent. Hum. Rights. 2013. Criminalization of Poverty Atlanta, GA: South. Cent. Hum. Rights https://www.schr.org/our-work/criminilization-of-poverty [Google Scholar]
  79. Spohn C. 2000. Thirty years of sentencing reform: the quest for a racially neutral sentencing process. Crim. Justice 3:427–501 [Google Scholar]
  80. Sullivan L, Meschede T, Dietrich L, Shapiro T. 2015. The racial wealth gap: why policy matters. Dēmos http://www.demos.org/sites/default/files/publications/RacialWealthGap_1.pdf [Google Scholar]
  81. Turner S, Greene J. 1999. The FARE probation experiment: implementation and outcomes of day fines for felony offenders in Maricopa County. Justice Syst. J. 21:1–21 [Google Scholar]
  82. US Dep. Justice Civ. Rights Div. 2015. The Ferguson Report: Department of Justice Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department New York: New Press [Google Scholar]
  83. US Dep. Justice. 2006. Annual Parole Survey, 2006 (ICPSR 3133) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR31331.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  84. US Dep. Justice. 2007. Annual Parole Survey, 2007 (ICPSR 31332) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR31332.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. US Dep. Justice. 2008. Annual Parole Survey, 2008 (ICPSR 34380) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR34380.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. US Dep. Justice. 2009. Annual Parole Survey, 2009 (ICPSR 34381) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR34381.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. US Dep. Justice. 2010. Annual Parole Survey, 2010 (ICPSR 34382) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR34382.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  88. US Dep. Justice. 2011. Annual Parole Survey, 2011 (ICPSR 34718) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR34718.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  89. US Dep. Justice. 2012. Annual Parole Survey, 2012 (ICPSR 35257) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR35257.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. US Dep. Justice. 2013. Annual Parole Survey, 2013 (ICPSR 35629) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR35629.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  91. US Dep. Justice. 2014a. Annual Parole Survey, 2014 (ICPSR 36320) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36320.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  92. US Dep. Justice. 2015. Annual Parole Survey, 2015 (ICPSR 36619) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36619.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. US Dep. Justice. 2014b. State Court Processing Statistics, 1990–2009: Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties (ICPSR 02038) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02038.v5 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  94. US Dep. Justice. 1972. Survey of Jail Inmates, 1972 (ICPSR 07668) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR07668.v2 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  95. US Dep. Justice. 1978. Survey of Jail Inmates, 1978 (ICPSR 07751) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR07751.v5 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  96. US Dep. Justice. 1983. Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1983 (ICPSR 08274) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR08274.v1. [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  97. US Dep. Justice. 1989. Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1989 (ICPSR 09419) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR09419.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  98. US Dep. Justice. 1996. Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996 (ICPSR 06858) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06858.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  99. US Dep. Justice. 2002. Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 2002 (ICPSR 04359) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR04359.v2 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  100. US Dep. Justice. 1979. Survey of Inmates of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1979 (ICPSR 07856) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR07856.v3 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  101. US Dep. Justice. 1986. Survey of Inmates of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1986. (ICPSR 08711) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR08711.v2 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. US Dep. Justice. 1991a. Survey of Inmates of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1991 (ICPSR 06068) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06068.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  103. US Dep. Justice. 1991b. Survey of Inmates of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1991 (ICPSR 06037) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06037.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  104. US Dep. Justice. 1997. Survey of Inmates of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1997 (ICPSR 02598) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02598.v1 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  105. US Dep. Justice. 2004. Survey of Inmates of State Correctional Facilities and Census of State Adult Correctional Facilities, 2004 (ICPSR 04572) Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-Univ. Consort. Political Soc. Res http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR04572.v2 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  106. US Sentencing Comm. 2015. Table 15: offenders receiving fines and restitution in each primary offense category, fiscal year 2015. Sourcebook 2015 Washington, DC: US Sentencing Comm https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/annual-reports-and-sourcebooks/2015/Table15.pdf [Google Scholar]
  107. Valle R, Carson K. 2016. Memo to Alameda County Board of Supervisors: Adopt a resolution suspending the assessment and collection of juvenile probation fees and the juvenile public defender fee for all alameda county residents Oakland, CA: Alameda Cty. [Google Scholar]
  108. Wang V. 2015. Ticket to nowhere: the hidden cost of driver's license suspensions. Milwaukee-Wisconsin Journal Sentinel Aug. 15, http://archive.jsonline.com/news/milwaukee/ticket-to-nowhere-the-hidden-cost-of-drivers-license-suspensions-b99547649z1-321972931.html/ [Google Scholar]
  109. Weiss DC. 2016. Texas police turn into “mobile debt collectors” with license-reader program. ABA Journal Febr. 1, http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/texas_police_turn_into_mobile_debt_collectors_with_license_reader_program/ [Google Scholar]
  110. Western B. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America New York: Russell Sage Found. [Google Scholar]
  111. Zitzer K. 1988–1989. Punitive damages: cat's clavicle in modern civil law. John Marshall Law Rev 22:3657–84 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-091915
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-091915
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error