1932

Abstract

Do jobs and income-transfer programs affect crime? The answer depends on why one is asking the question, which shapes what one means by “crime.” Many studies focus on understanding why overall crime rates vary across people, places, and time; because 80% of all crimes are property offenses, that is what this type of research typically explains. But if the goal is to understand what to do about the crime problem, the focus should instead be on serious violent crimes, which the best available estimates suggest seem to account for the majority of the social costs of crime. The best available evidence suggests that policies that reduce economic desperation reduce property crime (and, hence, overall crime rates) but have little systematic relationship to violent crime. The difference in impacts arguably stems in large part from the fact that most violent crimes, including murder, are not crimes of profit but rather crimes of passion, including rage. Policies to alleviate material hardship, as important and useful as those are for improving people's lives and well-being, are not by themselves sufficient to also substantially alleviate the burden of violent crime on society.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122257
2025-01-29
2025-02-07
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/8/1/annurev-criminol-111523-122257.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122257&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Agan AY, Makowsky MD. 2023.. The minimum wage, EITC, and criminal recidivism. . J. Hum. Resour. 58:(5):171251
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aizer A. 2010.. The gender wage gap and domestic violence. . Am. Econ. Rev. 100:(4):184759
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Akee RK, Copeland WE, Keeler G, Angold A, Costello EJ. 2010.. Parents’ incomes and children's outcomes: a quasi-experiment using transfer payments from casino profits. . Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. 2:(1):86115
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. Anderson DB, Schumacker RE. 1986.. Assessment of job training programs. . J. Offender Couns. Serv. Rehabil. 10:(4):4148
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Angrist JD, Pischke JS. 2017.. Undergraduate econometrics instruction: through our classes, darkly. . J. Econ. Perspect. 31:(2):12544
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Asher J. 2023.. Murder fell 6 percent in 2022 and other 2022 crime report nuggets. . Jeff-alytics, Oct. 23. https://jasher.substack.com/p/murder-fell-6-percent-in-2022-and
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Beccaria C. 1764/1996.. Of Crimes and Punishments. New York:: Marsilio
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Becker G. 1968.. Crime and punishment: an economic approach. . J. Political Econ. 76:(2):169217
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. Becker G. 1981.. A Treatise on the Family. Cambridge, MA:: Harvard Press
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Becker G, Murphy K. 2000.. Social Economics: Market Behavior in a Social Environment. Cambridge, MA:: Belknap/Harvard:
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Bentham J. 1789/1948.. An Introduction to the Principle of Morals and Legislation. Oxford, UK:: Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Berk RA, Lenihan KJ, Rossi PH. 1980.. Crime and poverty: some experimental evidence from ex-offenders. . Am. Sociol. Rev. 45:(5):76686
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  13. Bhalotra S, Britto DGC, Pinotti P, Sampaio B. 2021.. Job displacement, unemployment benefits and domestic violence. . CEPR Discuss. Pap. DP16350. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3886839
  14. Black D. 1983.. Crime as social control. . Am. Sociol. Rev. 48:(1):3445
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  15. Bollinger CR, Yelowitz A. 2021.. Targeting intensive job assistance to ex-offenders by the nature of offense: results from a randomized control trial. . Econ. Inq. 59:(3):130827
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bosman J. 2023.. Black voters in Chicago look for a candidate and a path forward on fighting crime. . New York Times, March 15. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/15/us/black-voters-chicago-mayor-policing-crime.html
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bullinger LR, Packham A, Raissian KM. 2023.. Effects of universal and unconditional cash transfers on child abuse and neglect. NBER Work. Pap. 31733. https://www.nber.org/papers/w31733
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bushway S, Cook PJ, Phillips M. 2013.. The net effect of the business cycle on crime and violence. . In Economics and Youth Violence: Crime, Disadvantage and Community, ed. R Rosenfeld, M Edberg, X Fang, CS Florence , pp. 2352. New York:: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Carr JB, Koppa V. 2020.. Housing vouchers, income shocks and crime: evidence from a lottery. . J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 177::47593
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. Carr JB, Packham A. 2019.. SNAP benefits and crime: evidence from changing disbursement schedules. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 101:(2):31025
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  21. Carr JB, Packham A. 2021.. SNAP schedules and domestic violence. . J. Policy Anal. Manag. 40:(2):41252
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  22. Chalfin A. 2015.. Economic costs of crime. . The Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, ed. WG Jennings, GE Higgins, MM Maldonado-Molina, DN Khey , pp. 112. New York:: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Chalfin A, McCrary J. 2018.. Are US cities underpoliced? Theory and evidence. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 100:(1):67186
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  24. Chic. Data Portal. 2024.. Violence reduction—victims of homicides and non-fatal shootings. Chic. Data Portal: Chicago:, updated July 25, 2024.. https://data.cityofchicago.org/Public-Safety/Violence-Reduction-Victims-of-Homicides-and-Non-Fa/gumc-mgzr/about_data
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Chic. Trib. 2019.. Morning spin: county commissioner: “Nothing stops a bullet like a job. .” Chicago Tribune, May 15. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2016/04/15/morning-spin-county-commissioner-nothing-stops-a-bullet-like-a-job/
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Clarke R. 1997.. Situational Crime Prevention. Guilderland, NY:: Harrow Heston Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  27. CMAP (Chic. Metrop. Agency Plan.). 2024.. Community data snapshots. CMAP: Chicago:, updated June 2024. https://cmap.illinois.gov/data/community-data-snapshots/
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Cohen A. 1955.. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York:: Free Press
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Cohen MA, Rust RT, Steen S, Tidd ST. 2004.. Willingness-to-pay for crime control programs. . Criminology 42:(1):89110
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  30. Cook PJ, Kang S, Braga AA, Ludwig J, O'Brien ME. 2015.. An experimental evaluation of a comprehensive employment-oriented prisoner re-entry program. . J. Quant. Criminol. 31::35582
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. Cook PJ, Ludwig J. 2000.. Gun Violence: The Real Costs. New York:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Cook PJ, Zarkin GA. 1985.. Crime and the business cycle. . J. Leg. Stud. 14:(1):11528
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  33. Cornish D, Clarke R. 1987.. Understanding crime displacement: an application of rational choice theory. . Criminology 25:(4):93348
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. Costopoulos JS, Plewinski AM, Monaghan PL, Edkins VA. 2017.. The impact of US government assistance on recidivism. . Crim. Behav. Ment. Health 27:(4):30311
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. Cullen JB, Levitt SD. 1999.. Crime, urban flight, and the consequences for cities. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 81:(2):15969
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. Davis JM, Heller SB. 2020.. Rethinking the benefits of youth employment programs: the heterogeneous effects of summer jobs. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 102:(4):66477
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Denver M, Siwach G, Bushway SD. 2017.. A new look at the employment and recidivism relationship through the lens of a criminal background check. . Criminology 55:(1):174204
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  38. Deshpande M, Mueller-Smith M. 2022.. Does welfare prevent crime? The criminal justice outcomes of youth removed from SSI. . Q. J. Econ. 137:(4):2263307
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. Deza M, Lu T, Maclean JC, Ortega A. 2024.. Losing Medicaid and crime. NBER Work. Pap. 32227. https://www.nber.org/papers/w32227
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Deza M, Maclean JC, Solomon K. 2022.. Local access to mental healthcare and crime. . J. Urban Econ. 129::103410
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. Domínguez P, Raphael S. 2015.. The role of the cost-of-crime literature in bridging the gap between social science research and policy making: potentials and limitations. . Criminol. Public Policy 14:(4):589632
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  42. Elder G. 1995., The life course paradigm: social change and individual development. , In Examining Lives in Context: Perspectives on the Ecology of Human Development, ed. P Moen, G Elder, K Luscher , pp. 10139. Washington, DC:: APA Press
    [Google Scholar]
  43. FBI. 2024.. Arrest. Crime Data Explor.: Clarksburg, WV:, updated June 10 , 2024.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Ferraz E, Soares R, Vargas J. 2022.. Unbundling the relationship between economic shocks and crime. . In A Modern Guide to the Economics of Crime, ed. P Buonanno, P Vanin, J Vargas , pp. 184204. Cheltanham, UK:: Edward Elgar Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Feshbach S. 1964.. The function of aggression and the regulation of aggressive drive. . Psychol. Rev. 71:(4):25772
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  46. Fishback PV, Johnson RS, Kantor S. 2010.. Striking at the roots of crime: the impact of welfare spending on crime during the Great Depression. . J. Law Econ. 53:(4):71540
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. Foley CF. 2011.. Welfare payments and crime. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 93:(1):97112
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  48. Freedman M, Owens EG. 2016.. Your friends and neighbors: localized economic development and criminal activity. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 98:(2):23353
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. Gelber A, Isen A, Kessler JB. 2016.. The effects of youth employment: evidence from New York City lotteries. . Q. J. Econ. 131:(1):42360
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. Glaeser E, Sacerdote B, Scheinkman J. 1996.. Crime and social interactions. . Q. J. Econ. 111:(2):50748
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gould ED, Weinberg BA, Mustard DB. 2002.. Crime rates and local labor market opportunities in the United States: 1979–1997. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 84:(1):4561
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. Han J, Meyer BD, Sullivan JX. 2022.. Who is poor, how poverty has changed, and why it matters: poverty measurement in the US and its implications for policy. Work. Pap. , Univ. Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN:. https://sites.nd.edu/james-sullivan/files/2023/04/Han_Meyer_Sullivan_Poverty_v21.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Haushofer J, Ringdal C, Shapiro JP, Wang XY. 2019.. Income changes and intimate partner violence: evidence from unconditional cash transfers in Kenya. NBER Work. Pap. 25627. https://www.nber.org/papers/w25627
    [Google Scholar]
  54. He Q, Barkowski S. 2020.. The effect of health insurance on crime: evidence from the Affordable Care Act Medicaid expansion. . Health Econ. 29:(3):26177
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. Heckman J, Ichimura H, Smith J, Todd P. 1998.. Characterizing selection bias using experimental data. . Econometrica 66:(5):101798
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  56. Heckman JJ, Ichimura H, Todd PE. 1997.. Matching as an econometric evaluation estimator: evidence from evaluating a job training programme. . Rev. Econ. Stud. 64:(4):60554
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. Heller SB. 2014.. Summer jobs reduce violence among disadvantaged youth. . Science 346:(6214):121923
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  58. Hernandez FG. 2022.. “ Violence is the expression of poverty”—Mayor Lightfoot stresses importance of investing in the West Side. . AustinTalks, March 31. http://austintalks.org/2022/03/violence-is-the-expression-of-poverty-mayor-lightfoot-stresses-importance-of-investing-in-the-west-side/
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Hsu LC. 2017.. The timing of welfare payments and intimate partner violence. . Econ. Inq. 55:(2):101731
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  60. IMF. 2024.. GDP based on PPP. IMF Datamapper: Washington, DC:, updated April 2024, retrieved April 2024. https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPSH@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jacob BA, Kapustin M, Ludwig J. 2015.. The impact of housing assistance on child outcomes: evidence from a randomized housing lottery. . Q. J. Econ. 130:(1):465506
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. Jácome E. 2022.. Mental health and criminal involvement: evidence from losing Medicaid eligibility. Work. Pap. https://elisajacome.github.io/Jacome/Jacome_JMP.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  63. James A, Smith B. 2017.. There will be blood: crime rates in shale-rich US counties. . J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 84::12552
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  64. [Google Scholar]
  65. Jones V. 2013.. Nothing stops a bullet like a job. . CNN, March 7. https://www.cnn.com/2013/02/06/opinion/jones-guns-youth
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Katz J. 1988.. Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil. New York:: Basic Books
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Kessler JB, Tahamont S, Gelber A, Isen A. 2022.. The effects of youth employment on crime: evidence from New York City lotteries. . J. Policy Anal. Manag. 41:(3):71030
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  68. Kling J, Ludwig J, Katz L. 2005.. Neighborhood effects on crime for female and male youth: evidence from a randomized housing voucher experiment. . Q. J. Econ. 120:(1):87130
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Kniesner TJ, Viscusi WK. 2019.. The value of a statistical life. . In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance. Oxford, UK:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  70. LaLonde RJ. 1986.. Evaluating the econometric evaluations of training programs with experimental data. . Am. Econ. Rev. 76:(4):60420
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Leal W, Gertz M, Piquero AR. 2015.. The National Felon League?: a comparison of NFL arrests to general population arrests. . J. Crim. Justice 43:(5):397403
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  72. Lindo JM, Schaller J, Hansen B. 2018.. Caution! Men not at work: gender-specific labor market conditions and child maltreatment. . J. Public Econ. 163::7798
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  73. Lochner L, Moretti E. 2004.. The effect of education on crime: evidence from prison inmates, arrests, and self-reports. . Am. Econ. Rev. 94:(1):15589
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  74. Loftin C, McDowall D, Fetzer M. 2008.. A comparison of SHR and Vital Statistics homicide estimates for US cities. . J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 24:(1):417
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  75. Luallen J, Edgerton J, Rabideau D. 2018.. A quasi-experimental evaluation of the impact of public assistance on prisoner recidivism. . J. Quant. Criminol. 34::74173
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  76. MacDonald J. 2024.. Criminal justice reform guided by evidence: social control works—the Academy of Experimental Criminology 2022 Joan McCord Lecture. . J. Exp. Criminol. 20::74360
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. Mallar CD, Thornton CV. 1978.. Transitional aid for released prisoners: evidence from the LIFE experiment. . J. Hum. Resour. 13:(2):20836
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  78. Maxfield MG. 1989.. Circumstances in supplementary homicide reports: variety and validity. . Criminology 27:(4):67196
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  79. Mayer RE. 1998.. Cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of problem solving. . Instr. Sci. 26::4963
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  80. Miethe TD, Regoeczi WC. 2009.. Rethinking Homicide: Exploring the Structure and Process Underlying Deadly Situations. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Modestino AS. 2019.. How do summer youth employment programs improve criminal justice outcomes, and for whom?. J. Policy Anal. Manag. 38:(3):60028
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  82. Moore N. 2016.. Researchers: nothing stops a bullet like a job. . WBEZ Chicago, March 23. https://www.wbez.org/chicago/2016/03/23/researchers-nothing-stops-a-bullet-like-a-job
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Mueller-Smith MG, Reeves JM, Schnepel K, Walker C. 2023.. The direct and intergenerational effects of criminal history-based safety net bans in the US. NBER Work. Pap. 31983. https://www.nber.org/papers/w31983
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Palmer C, Phillips DC, Sullivan JX. 2019.. Does emergency financial assistance reduce crime?. J. Public Econ. 169::3451
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. Pinker S. 2011.. The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. London: Penguin:
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Raphael S, Winter-Ebmer R. 2001.. Identifying the effect of unemployment on crime. . J. Law Econ. 44:(1):25983
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. Redcross C, Bloom D, Jacobs E, Manno M, Muller-Ravett S, et al. 2010.. Work after prison: one-year findings from the transitional jobs reentry demonstration. . MDRC. https://www.mdrc.org/work/publications/work-after-prison
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Redcross C, Millenky M, Rudd T, Levshin V. 2012.. More than a job: final results from the evaluation of the Center for Employment Opportunities (CEO) Transitional Jobs program. OPRE Rep. 2011-18 , US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Washington, DC:. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/more_than_job.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Rohlfs C, Sullivan R, Kniesner T. 2015.. New estimates of the value of a statistical life using air bag regulations as a quasi-experiment. . Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy 7:(1):33159
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. Rose EK. 2018.. The effects of job loss on crime: evidence from administrative data. SSRN Work. Pap. 2991317. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2991317
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Rossi PH, Berk RA, Lenihan KJ. 1980.. Money, Work, and Crime: Experimental Evidence. Cambridge, MA:: Acad. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Rossman S, Sridharan S, Gouvis C, Buck J, Morley E. 1999.. Impact of the Opportunity to Succeed (OPTS) aftercare program for substance-abusing felons: comprehensive final report. Rep. , Urban Inst., Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Ruhm CJ. 2000.. Are recessions good for your health?. Q. J. Econ. 115:(2):61750
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  94. Ruhm CJ. 2015.. Recessions, healthy no more?. J. Health Econ. 42::1728
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  95. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 1990.. Crime and deviance over the life course: the salience of adult social bonds. . Am. Sociol. Rev. 55:(5):60927
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  96. Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F. 1997.. Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. . Science 277:(5328):91824
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  97. Schnepel KT. 2018.. Good jobs and recidivism. . Econ. J. 128:(608):44769
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  98. SEIU Healthc. 2012.. “ Nothing stops a bullet like a job”: 6th Ward residents unite against gun violence, unemployment. . SEIU HCII, Febr. 9. https://seiuhcilin.org/2012/02/nothing-stops-a-bullet-like-a-job-6th-ward-residents-unite-against-gun-violence-poverty/
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Sharkey P. 2018.. The long reach of violence: a broader perspective on data, theory, and evidence on the prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence. . Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1::85102
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  100. Simes JT, Jahn JL. 2022.. The consequences of Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act for police arrests. . PLOS ONE 17:(1):e0261512
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  101. Smith EL. 2022.. Just the stats: female murder victims and victim-offender relationship, 2021. Rep. NCJ 305613 , Bur. Justice Stat., Washington, DC:. https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/fmvvor21.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Smith JA, Todd PE. 2005.. Does matching overcome LaLonde's critique of nonexperimental estimators?. J. Econ. 125:(1–2):30553
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Street B. 2023.. The impact of economic opportunity on criminal behavior: evidence from the fracking boom. Work. Pap. https://brittanystreet.github.io/website/Street_NDcrimelabor.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Sunstein CR. 2004.. Are poor people worth less than rich people? Disaggregating the value of statistical lives. Law Econ. Work. Pap. No. 207
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Sutherland EH, Cressy DR. 1966.. Principles of Criminology. Philadelphia:: JP Lippincott. , 7th ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Thaler R. 1978.. A note on the value of crime control: evidence from the property market. . J. Urban Econ. 5:(1):13745
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  107. Thompson A, Tapp S. 2023.. Criminal victimization, 2022. Rep. NCJ 307089 , Bur. Justice Stat., Washington, DC:. https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/cv22.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Thornberry T, ed. 1997.. Developmental Theories of Crime and Delinquency. Piscataway, NJ:: Transaction Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Tuttle C. 2019.. Snapping back: food stamp bans and criminal recidivism. . Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy 11:(2):30127
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  110. Uggen C. 2000.. Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: a duration model of age, employment, and recidivism. . Am. Sociol. Rev. 65:(4):52946
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  111. UNODC. 2024.. Victims of intentional homicide. UNODC Res. Data Portal, New York:, retreived March 26, 2024. https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-intentional-homicide-victims
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Vogler J. 2020.. Access to healthcare and criminal behavior: evidence from the ACA Medicaid expansions. . J. Policy Anal. Manag. 39:(4):1166213
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  113. Vold GB, Bernard TJ. 1986.. Theoretical Criminology. New York:: Oxford Univ. Press. , 3rd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Watson B, Guettabi M, Reimer M. 2020.. Universal cash and crime. . Rev. Econ. Stat. 102:(4):67889
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  115. Wolfgang MF. 1957.. Victim precipitated criminal homicide. . J. Crim. Law Criminol. 48:(1):111
    [Google Scholar]
  116. World Bank. 2024.. World development indicators. World Bank Databank, Washington, DC:, retrieved March 26, 2024. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Yang CS. 2017a.. Local labor markets and criminal recidivism. . J. Public Econ. 147::1629
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  118. Yang CS. 2017b.. Does public assistance reduce recidivism?. Am. Econ. Rev. 107:(5):55155
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  119. Zimring F. 1967.. Is gun control likely to reduce violent killings. . Univ. Chicago Law Rev. 35::72137
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  120. Zimring F, Hawkins G. 1999.. Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. Oxford, UK:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122257
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122257
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error