1932

Abstract

Extreme risk protection orders (ERPOs) are designed to protect against firearm violence and are a relatively new policy tool in the United States. As of April 2024, 21 states and the District of Columbia have enacted ERPO laws. This article presents a systematic review of the literature concerning ERPO laws, their use, and their effectiveness. Four main domains are considered in relation to the literature landscape: () formulation and passage of ERPO laws, () legal analyses of ERPO laws, () ERPO implementation, and () evaluations of ERPO laws. Thirty-six articles met our inclusion criteria and were analyzed. This systematic review provides the existing evidence regarding ERPO implementation and effectiveness and carves a pathway forward for future research, policy, and practice.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122602
2025-01-29
2025-04-18
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/8/1/annurev-criminol-111523-122602.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122602&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Anestis MD, Daruwala SE. 2021.. The association between beliefs about the centrality of mental illness in gun violence and general firearm beliefs and behaviors. . Psychol. Violence 11:(4):36475
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  2. Barnard LM, McCarthy M, Knoepke CE, Kaplan S, Engeln J, Betz ME. 2021.. Colorado's first year of extreme risk protection orders. . Inj. Epidemiol. 8::59
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Betz ME, Frattaroli S, Knoepke CE, Johnson R, Christy A, et al. 2023.. Extreme risk protection orders in older adults in six U.S. states: a descriptive study. . Clin. Gerontol. 47:(4):53643
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. Blocher J, Charles JD. 2020.. Firearms, extreme risk, and legal design: “red flag” laws and due process. . Va. Law Rev. 106:(6):1285344
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Carter PM, Losman E, Roche JS, Malani PN, Kullgren JT, et al. 2022.. Firearm ownership, attitudes, and safe storage practices among a nationally representative sample of older U.S. adults age 50 to 80. . Prev. Med. 156::106955
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Cent. Dis. Control Prev. 2024.. WISQARS: Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System. . WISQARS. https://wisqars.cdc.gov/
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Consort. Risk-Based Firearm Policy. 2013.. Guns, public health and mental illness: an evidence-based approach for state policy. Rep. , Educ. Fund Stop Gun Violence, Washington, DC:. https://riskbasedfirearmpolicy.org/reports-resources/
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Consort. Risk-Based Firearm Policy. 2020.. Extreme risk protection orders: new recommendations for policy and implementation. Rep. , Educ. Fund Stop Gun Violence, Washington, DC:. https://efsgv.org/wp-content/uploads/EFSGV-ConsortiumReport2020-ERPOs.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Crifasi CK, Stone EM, McGinty EE, Barry CL. 2021.. Differences in public support for gun policies between women and men. . Am. J. Prev. Med. 60:(1):e914
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. Crifasi CK, Ward J, McCourt AD, Webster D, Doucette ML. 2023.. The association between permit-to-purchase laws and shootings by police. . Inj. Epidemiol. 10::28
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. Delaney G, Charles J, Delaney GA, Charles JD. 2020.. A double-filter provision for expanded red flag laws: a proposal for balancing rights and risks in preventing gun violence. . J. Law Med. Ethics 48:(4):12632
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. Dep. Def. 2023.. Annual report on suicide in the military, calendar year 2022. Rep. , Dep. Def., Washington, DC:. https://www.dspo.mil/Portals/113/Documents/ARSM_CY22.pdf?ver=StAk_q6lJgNRUsOlptzVVA%3d%3d
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Frattaroli S, Hoops K, Irvin NA, McCourt A, Nestadt PS, et al. 2019.. Assessment of physician self-reported knowledge and use of Maryland's extreme risk protection order law. . JAMA Netw. Open 2:(12):E1918037
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  14. Frattaroli S, McGinty EE, Barnhorst A, Greenberg S. 2015.. Gun violence restraining orders: alternative or adjunct to mental health-based restrictions on firearms?. Behav. Sci. Law 33:(2–3):290307
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  15. Frattaroli S, Omaki E, Molocznik A, Allchin A, Hopkins R, et al. 2020.. Extreme risk protection orders in King County, Washington: the epidemiology of dangerous behaviors and an intervention response. . Inj. Epidemiol. 7::44
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. Gay C. 2020.. “ Red flag” laws: how law enforcement's controversial new tool to reduce mass shootings fits within current Second Amendment jurisprudence. . Boston Coll. Law Rev. 61:(4):1491534
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Grene K, Dharani A, Siegel M. 2023.. Gun owners’ assessment of gun safety policy: their underlying principles and detailed opinions. . Inj. Epidemiol. 10::21
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hollo A, VanderStoep A, Frattaroli S. 2022.. Physicians’ perspectives on extreme risk protection orders (ERPOs) in the clinical setting: challenges and opportunities for gun violence prevention. . PLOS ONE 17:(9):e0274489
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  19. Ind. State Police. 2024.. Indiana Jake Laird Law (red flag law). . IN.gov. https://www.in.gov/isp/indiana-jake-laird-law-red-flag-law/
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Johnson CM. 2021.. Raising the red flag: examining the constitutionality of extreme risk laws. . Univ. Ill. Law Rev. 2021:(4):151546
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Kappelman J. 2020.. Just a minor infringement: how Florida's extreme risk protection order applies to at-risk youth and other household members. . Law Psychol. Rev. 45::1938
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Kingdon JW. 1984.. Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. Glenview, IL:: Longman-Pearson. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Kivisto AJ, Phalen PL. 2018.. Effects of risk-based firearm seizure laws in Connecticut and Indiana on suicide rates, 1981–2015. . Psychiatr. Serv. 69:(8):85562
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  24. Kopel DB. 2020.. Red flag laws: proceed with caution. . Law Psychol. Rev. 45::3986
    [Google Scholar]
  25. NYSRPA v. Bruen, 1422 S. Ct. 2111 ( 2022.)
  26. Ouzzani M, Hammady H, Fedorowicz Z, Elmagarmid A. 2016.. Rayyan—a web and mobile app for systematic reviews. . Syst. Rev. 5::210
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  27. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, et al. 2021.. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. . BMJ 372::n71
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  28. Pallin R, Schleimer JP, Pear VA, Wintemute GJ. 2021a.. Assessment of extreme risk protection order use in California from 2016 to 2019. . JAMA Netw. Open 3:(6):e207735
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. Pallin R, Tomsich E, Schleimer JP, Pear VA, Charbonneau A, et al. 2021b.. Understanding the circumstances and stakeholder perceptions of gun violence restraining order use in California: a qualitative study. . Criminol. Public Pol. 20:(4):75573
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  30. Parker GF. 2015.. Circumstances and outcomes of a firearm seizure law: Marion County, Indiana, 2006–2013. . Behav. Sci. Law 33:(2–3):30822
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. Pear VA, De Biasi A, Charbonneau A. 2023.. Law enforcement officer knowledge of, attitudes toward, and willingness to use extreme risk protection orders. . JAMA Netw. Open 6:(10):e2338455
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. Pear VA, Pallin R, Schleimer JP, Tomsich E, Kravitz-Wirtz N, et al. 2022a.. Gun violence restraining orders in California, 2016–2018: case details and respondent mortality. . Inj. Prev. 28:(5):46571
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  33. Pear VA, Schleimer JP, Aubel AJ, Buggs S, Knoepke CE, et al. 2022b.. Extreme risk protection orders, race/ethnicity, and equity: evidence from California. . Prev. Med. 165:(Part A):107181
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. Pear VA, Schleimer JP, Tomsich E, Pallin R, Charbonneau A, et al. 2021.. Implementation and perceived effectiveness of gun violence restraining orders in California: a qualitative evaluation. . PLOS ONE 16:(10):e0258547
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. Pear VA, Wintemute GH, Jewell NP, Ahern J. 2022c.. Firearm violence following the implementation of California's gun violence restraining order law. . JAMA Netw. Open 5:(4):E224216
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. Pomeranz JL, Ochoa G. 2021.. Firearm extreme risk protection order laws and preemption: new developments and outstanding issues, 50 states, 2020. . Am. J. Prev. Med. 61:(3):45560
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Prater L, Rooney L, Bowen AG, Conrick K, Mustafa A, et al. 2022.. Civilian petitioners and extreme risk protection orders in the state of Washington. . Psychiatr. Serv. 73:(11):126369
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  38. Prater LC, Haviland MJ, Rivara FP, Bellenger MA, Gibb L, Rowhani-Rahbar A. 2021.. Extreme risk protection orders and persons with dementia in the state of Washington. . J. Gen. Intern. Med. 36:(12):388587
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. Rooney L, Conrick KM, Bellenger MA, Moore M, Haviland MJ, et al. 2021.. Understanding the process, context, and characteristics of extreme risk protection orders: a statewide study. . J. Health Care Poor Underserved 32:(4):212542
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. Rowhani-Rahbar A, Bellenger MA, Gibb L, Chesnut H, Lowry-Schiller M, et al. 2020.. Extreme risk protection orders in Washington: a statewide descriptive study. . Ann. Intern. Med. 173:(5):34249
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. Saadi A, Choi KR, Takada S, Zimmerman FJ. 2020.. The impact of gun violence restraining order laws in the U.S. and firearm suicide among older adults: a longitudinal state-level analysis, 2012–2016. . BMC Public Health 20::334
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  42. Siegel M, Dunn D, Shareef F, Neufeld M, Boine C. 2021.. The descriptive epidemiology of brand-specific gun ownership in the US: results from the 2019 National Lawful Use of Guns Survey. . Inj. Epidemiol. 8::12
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  43. Shultz NB, Lye CT, D'Onofrio G, Gluck AR, Miller J, et al. 2020.. Understanding the role of law in reducing firearm injury through clinical interventions. . J. Law Med. Ethics 48:(Suppl. 4):14654
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. Stone EM, Crifasi CK, Ward JA, Vernick JS, Webster DW, et al. 2022.. National support for gun policies among U.S. adults in 2019 and 2021. . Prev. Med. 165::107314
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. Swanson JW, Easter MM, Alanis-Hirsch K, Belden CM, Norko MA, et al. 2019.. Criminal justice and suicide outcomes with Indiana's risk-based gun seizure law. . J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law 47:(2):18897
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Swanson JW, McGinty EE, Fazel S, Mays VM. 2015.. Mental illness and reduction of gun violence and suicide: bringing epidemiologic research to policy. . Ann. Epidemiol. 25:(5):36676
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. Swanson JW, Norko MA, Lin HJ, Alanis-Hirsch K, Frisman LK, et al. 2017.. Implementation and effectiveness of Connecticut's risk-based gun removal law: Does it prevent suicides?. Law Contemp. Probl. 80:(2):179208
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Swanson JW, Sivaraman JC, Easter MM. 2022.. Evaluating extreme risk protection order laws: When is it premature to expect population-level effects?. JAMA Netw. Open 5:(4):e224909
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. Tomsich EA, Pear VA, Schleimer JP, Wintemute GJ. 2023.. The origins of California's gun violence restraining order law: a case study using Kingdon's multiple streams framework. . BMC Public Health 23::1275
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. Willinger A, Frattaroli S. 2023.. Extreme risk protection orders in the post-Bruen age: weighing evidence, scholarship, and rights for a promising gun violence prevention tool. . Fordham Urban Law J. 51:(1):157220
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Wintemute GJ, Pear VA, Schleimer JP, Pallin R, Sohl S, et al. 2019.. Extreme risk protection orders intended to prevent mass shootings: a case series. . Ann. Intern. Med. 171:(9):65558
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. Zeoli AM, Frattaroli S, Barnard L, Bowen A, Christy A, et al. 2022.. Extreme risk protection orders in response to threats of multiple victim/mass shooting in six U.S. states: a descriptive study. . Prev. Med. 165::107304
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  53. Zeoli AM, Paruk J, Branas CC, Carter PM, Cunningham R, et al. 2021.. Use of extreme risk protection orders to reduce gun violence in Oregon. . Criminol. Public Policy 20:(2):24361
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  54. Zeoli AM, Paruk JK, Pizzaro JM, Goldstick J. 2019.. Ecological research designs for studies of violence: a methodological guide. . J. Interpers. Violence 34:(23–24):486080
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122602
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122602
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplemental Materials

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error