1932

Abstract

Animal linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that integrates animal behavior, linguistics, and cognitive science to explore issues such as () what animal signals mean, () what cognitive abilities are necessary for the production and understanding of these signals, and () how communication systems have evolved. Despite the traditional belief that language evolved through a single mutation in our ancestors, accumulating evidence suggests that many cognitive abilities underlying human language have also evolved in nonhuman animals. For example, several species of birds and nonhuman primates convey conceptual meanings through specific vocalizations and/or combine multiple meaning-bearing calls into sequences using syntactic rules. Using experimental paradigms inspired by cognitive science and linguistics, animal linguistics aims to uncover the cognitive mechanisms underlying animal language and explores its evolutionary principles. This review examines previous studies exploring the meanings and cognitive abilities underlying animal language and introduces key methodologies in this emerging field.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102622-030253
2024-11-04
2025-04-21
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/ecolsys/55/1/annurev-ecolsys-102622-030253.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102622-030253&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abbott KR, Dukas R. 2009.. Honeybees consider flower danger in their waggle dance. . Anim. Behav. 78::63335
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adams DC. 2008.. Phylogenetic meta-analysis. . Evolution 62::56772
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Albers AM, Kok P, Toni I, Dijkerman HC, de Lange FP. 2013.. Shared representations for working memory and mental imagery in early visual cortex. . Curr. Biol. 23::142731
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. Arbib MA, Liebal K, Pika S. 2008.. Primate vocalization, gesture, and the evolution of human language. . Curr. Anthropol. 49::105376
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Arnold K, Zuberbühler K. 2006a.. Language evolution: semantic combinations in primate calls. . Nature 441::303
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Arnold K, Zuberbühler K. 2006b.. The alarm-calling system of adult male putty-nosed monkeys, Cercopithecus nictitans martini. . Anim. Behav. 72::64353
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. Arnold K, Zuberbühler K. 2008.. Meaningful call combinations in a non-human primate. . Curr. Biol. 18::R2023
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. Arnold K, Zuberbühler K. 2012.. Call combinations in monkeys: compositional or idiomatic expressions?. Brain Lang. 120::3039
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bateman PW, Fleming PA. 2011.. Who are you looking at? Hadeda ibises use direction of gaze, head orientation and approach speed in their risk assessment of a potential predator. . J. Zool. 285::31623
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. Ben Mocha Y, Mundry R, Pika S. 2019.. Joint attention skills in wild Arabian babblers (Turdoides squamiceps): a consequence of cooperative breeding?. Proc. R. Soc. B 286::20190147
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. Berthet M, Coye C, Dezecache G, Kuhn J. 2023.. Animal linguistics: a primer. . Biol. Rev. 98::8198
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. Berwick RC, Chomsky N. 2016.. Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Berwick RC, Chomsky N. 2019.. All or nothing: no half-Merge and the evolution of syntax. . PLOS Biol. 17::e3000539
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  14. Boeckx C. 2009.. The nature of Merge: consequences for language, mind, and biology. . In Of Minds & Language: A Dialogue with Noam Chomsky in the Basque Country, ed. M Piattelli-Palmarini, J Uriagereka, P Salaburu , pp. 4457. Oxford, UK:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bolhuis JJ, Tattersall I, Chomsky N, Berwick RC. 2014.. How could language have evolved?. PLOS Biol. 12::e1001934
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bradbury JW, Vehrencamp SL. 2011.. Principles of Animal Communication. Sunderland, MA:: Sinauer Assoc. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Butterworth G, Grover L. 1988.. The origins of referential communication in human infancy. . In Thought without Language, ed. L Weiskrantz , pp. 524. Oxford, UK:: Clarendon Press/Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Chomsky N. 1993.. A minimalist program for linguistic theory. . In The View from Building 20, ed. K Hare, K Keyser , pp. 152. Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Clucas B, Marzluff JM, Mackovjak D, Palmquist I. 2013.. Do American crows pay attention to human gaze and facial expressions?. Ethology 119::296302
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. Coye C, Ouattara K, Zuberbühler K, Lemasson A. 2015.. Suffixation influences receivers’ behaviour in non-human primates. . Proc. R. Soc. B 282::20150265
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  21. Cunha FCR, Griesser M. 2021.. Who do you trust? Wild birds use social knowledge to avoid being deceived. . Sci. Adv. 7::eaba2862
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  22. Darwin C. 1871.. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London:: John Murray
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Davies NB, Krebs JR, West SA. 2012.. An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology. Hoboken, NJ:: John Wiley & Sons. , 4th ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  24. de Boer B, Thompson B, Ravignani A, Boeckx C. 2020.. Evolutionary dynamics do not motivate a single-mutant theory of human language. . Sci. Rep. 10::451
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  25. Deshpande A, Van Boekholt B, Zuberbühler K. 2022.. Preliminary evidence for one-trial social learning of vervet monkey alarm calling. . R. Soc. Open Sci. 9::210560
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  26. Deshpande A, van de Waal E, Zuberbühler K. 2023.. Context-dependent alarm responses in wild vervet monkeys. . Anim. Cogn. 26::1199208
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  27. Dhein K. 2023.. The cognitive map debate in insects: a historical perspective on what is at stake. . Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci. 98::6379
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  28. Dufresne F, Herbert PDN. 1994.. Hybridization and origins of polyploidy. . Proc. R. Soc. B 258::14146
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. Elias DO, Maddison WP, Peckmezian C, Girard MB, Mason AC. 2012.. Orchestrating the score: complex multimodal courtship in the Habronattus coecatus group of Habronattus jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae). . Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 105::52247
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  30. Elias DO, Mason AC, Maddison WP, Hoy RR. 2003.. Seismic signals in a courting male jumping spider (Araneae: Salticidae). . J. Exp. Biol. 206::402939
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. Engesser S, Ridley AR, Townsend SW. 2016.. Meaningful call combinations and compositional processing in the southern pied babbler. . PNAS 113::597681
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. Fernandez AA, Burchardt LS, Nagy M, Knörnschild M. 2021.. Babbling in a vocal learning bat resembles human infant babbling. . Science 373::92326
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  33. Fisher SE, Scharff C. 2009.. FOXP2 as a molecular window into speech and language. . Trends Genet. 25::16677
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. Fitch WT. 2010.. The Evolution of Language. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Flower TP, Gribble M, Ridley AR. 2014.. Deception by flexible alarm mimicry in an African bird. . Science 344::51316
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. Forder L, Lupyan G. 2019.. Hearing words changes color perception: facilitation of color discrimination by verbal and visual cues. . J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 148::110523
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Fujita K. 2014.. Recursive Merge and human language evolution. . In Recursion: Complexity in Cognition, ed. T Roeper, M Speas , pp. 24364. New York:: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Fukui N. 2011.. Merge and bare phrase structure. . In The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Minimalism, ed. C Boeckx , pp. 7395. Oxford, UK:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Garamszegi LZ, Møller AP. 2010.. Effects of sample size and intraspecific variation in phylogenetic comparative studies: a meta-analytic review. . Biol. Rev. 85::797805
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. Gardner RA, Gardner BT, Van Cantfort TE. 1989.. Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees. New York:: SUNY Press
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Haesler S, Rochefort C, Georgi B, Licznerski P, Osten P, Scharff C. 2007.. Incomplete and inaccurate vocal imitation after knockdown of FoxP2 in songbird basal ganglia nucleus area X. . PLOS Biol. 5::e321
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  42. Hains SM, Muir DW. 1996.. Infant sensitivity to adult eye direction. . Child. Dev. 67::194051
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  43. Hauser MD, Chomsky N, Fitch WT. 2002.. The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?. Science 298::156979
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. Higham JP, Hebets EA. 2013.. An introduction to multimodal communication. . Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 67::138188
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. Hillert DG. 2015.. On the evolving biology of language. . Front. Psychol. 6::1796
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  46. Hockett CF. 1960.. The origin of speech. . Sci. Am. 203::8897
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. Hornstein N. 2009.. A Theory of Syntax: Minimal Operations and Universal Grammar. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hurford JR. 2007.. The Origins of Meaning: Language in the Light of Evolution. Oxford, UK:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Hurford JR. 2012.. The Origins of Grammar: Language in the Light of Evolution II. Oxford, UK:: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Kano F, Call J. 2014.. Cross-species variation in gaze following and conspecific preference among great apes, human infants and adults. . Anim. Behav. 91::13750
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. Kaplan G. 2011.. Pointing gesture in a bird—merely instrumental or a cognitively complex behavior?. Curr. Zool. 57::45367
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. Kecskes I, Horn LR. 2007.. Explorations in Pragmatics: Linguistic, Cognitive and Intercultural Aspects. Berlin:: Walter de Gruyter
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Kok P, Mostert P, de Lange FP. 2017.. Prior expectations induce prestimulus sensory templates. . PNAS 114::1047378
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  54. Laine V, Gossmann T, Schachtschneider K, et al. 2016.. Evolutionary signals of selection on cognition from the great tit genome and methylome. . Nat. Commun. 7::10474
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. Lameira AR, Call J. 2018.. Time-space-displaced responses in the orangutan vocal system. . Sci. Adv. 4::eaau3401
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  56. Lee S-H, Kravitz DJ, Baker CI. 2012.. Disentangling visual imagery and perception of real-world objects. . NeuroImage 59::406473
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. León J, Thiriau C, Bodin C, Crockford C, Zuberbühler K. 2022.. Acquisition of predator knowledge from alarm calls via one-trial social learning in monkeys. . iScience 25::104853
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  58. Leroux M, Schel AM, Wilke C, Chandia B, Zuberbühler K, et al. 2023.. Call combinations and compositional processing in wild chimpanzees. . Nat. Commun. 14::2225
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  59. Lord C. 2013.. Aristotle's Politics. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Lorenz K. 1952.. King Solomon's Ring: New Light on Animal Ways. Springfield, OH:: Crowell
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Lupyan G, Ward EJ. 2013.. Language can boost otherwise unseen objects into visual awareness. . PNAS 110::14196201
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. Macedonia JM, Evans CS. 1993.. Variation among mammalian alarm call systems and the problem of meaning in animal signals. . Ethology 93::17797
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  63. Magrath RD, Haff TM, Horn AG, Leonard ML. 2010.. Calling in the face of danger: predation risk and acoustic communication by parent birds and their offspring. . Adv. Study Behav. 41::187253
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  64. Magrath RD, Haff TM, Fallow PM, Radford AN. 2015a.. Eavesdropping on heterospecific alarm calls: from mechanisms to consequences. . Biol. Rev. 90::56086
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  65. Magrath RD, Haff TM, McLachlan JR, Igic B. 2015b.. Wild birds learn to eavesdrop on heterospecific alarm calls. . Curr. Biol. 25::204750
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  66. McNeill D. 1996.. Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought. Chicago:: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  67. McNeill D. 2005.. Gesture and Thought. Chicago:: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Menzel R. 2023.. Navigation and dance communication in honeybees: a cognitive perspective. . J. Comp. Physiol. A 209::51527
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  69. Moore C. 1999.. Gaze following and the control of attention. . In Early Social Cognition: Understanding Others in the First Months of Life, ed. P Rochat , pp. 24156. Mahwah, NJ:: Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Ouattara K, Lemasson A, Zuberbühler K. 2009a.. Campbell's monkeys concatenate vocalizations into context-specific call sequences. . PNAS 106::2202631
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  71. Ouattara K, Lemasson A, Zuberbühler K. 2009b.. Campbell's monkeys use affixation to alter call meaning. . PLOS ONE 4::e7808
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  72. Partan SR, Marler P. 2005.. Issues in the classification of multimodal communication signals. . Am. Nat. 166::23145
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  73. Pearson J, Naselaris T, Holmes EA, Kosslyn SM. 2015.. Mental imagery: functional mechanisms and clinical applications. . Trends Cogn. Sci. 19::590602
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  74. Pelletier FJ. 1994.. The principle of semantic compositionality. . Topoi 13::1124
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  75. Phillips AT, Wellman HM, Spelke ES. 2002.. Infants’ ability to connect gaze and emotional expression to intentional action. . Cognition 85::5378
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  76. Pika S, Bugnyar T. 2011.. The use of referential gestures in ravens (Corvus corax) in the wild. . Nat. Commun. 2::560
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. Pika S, Mitani JC. 2006.. Referential gesturing in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). . Curr. Biol. 16::19192
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  78. Potvin DA, Ratnayake CP, Radford AN, Magrath RD. 2018.. Birds learn socially to recognize heterospecific alarm calls by acoustic association. . Curr. Biol. 28::R89294
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  79. Prather JF, Okanoya K, Bolhuis JJ. 2017.. Brains for birds and babies: neural parallels between birdsong and speech acquisition. . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 81:(Part B):22537
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  80. Price T, Wadewitz P, Cheney D, Seyfarth R, Hammerschmidt K, Fischer J. 2015.. Vervets revisited: a quantitative analysis of alarm call structure and context specificity. . Sci. Rep. 5::13220
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  81. Raff RA. 2000.. Evo-devo: the evolution of a new discipline. . Nat. Rev. Genet. 1::7479
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  82. Ravignani A, Garcia M. 2022.. A cross-species framework to identify vocal learning abilities in mammals. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 377::20200394
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  83. Rendall D, Owren MJ, Ryan MJ. 2009.. What do animal signals mean?. Anim. Behav. 78::23340
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  84. Rivas E. 2005.. Recent use of signs by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in interactions with humans. . J. Comp. Psychol. 119::40417
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. Scharff C, Petri J. 2011.. Evo-devo, deep homology and FoxP2: implications for the evolution of speech and language. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 366::212440
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. Schlenker P, Chemla E, Schel AM, Fuller J, Gautier J-P, et al. 2016a.. Formal monkey linguistics. . Theor. Linguist. 42::190
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. Schlenker P, Chemla E, Schel AM, Fuller J, Gautier J-P, et al. 2016b.. Formal monkey linguistics: the debate. . Theor. Linguist. 42::173201
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  88. Scott-Phillips TC. 2015.. Nonhuman primate communication, pragmatics, and the origins of language. . Curr. Anthropol. 56::5680
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  89. Serres MH, Kerr AR, McCormack TJ, Riley M. 2009.. Evolution by leaps: gene duplication in bacteria. . Biol. Direct 4::46
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL, Bergman T, Fischer J, Zuberbühler K, Hammerschmidt K. 2010.. The central importance of information in studies of animal communication. . Anim. Behav. 80::38
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  91. Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL, Marler P. 1980.. Monkey responses to three different alarm calls: evidence of predator classification and semantic communication. . Science 210::8013
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  92. Shultz S, Dunbar RIM. 2006.. Both social and ecological factors predict ungulate brain size. . Proc. R. Soc. B 273::20715
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. Struhsaker TT. 1967.. Auditory communication among vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). . In Social Communication Among Primates, ed. S Altmann , pp. 281324. Chicago:: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Suzuki TN. 2011.. Parental alarm calls warn nestlings about different predatory threats. . Curr. Biol. 21::R1516
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  95. Suzuki TN. 2012a.. Referential mobbing calls elicit different predator-searching behaviours in Japanese great tits. . Anim. Behav. 84::5357
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  96. Suzuki TN. 2012b.. Long-distance calling by the willow tit, Poecile montanus, facilitates formation of mixed-species foraging flocks. . Ethology 118::1016
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  97. Suzuki TN. 2014.. Communication about predator type by a bird using discrete, graded and combinatorial variation in alarm calls. . Anim. Behav. 87::5965
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  98. Suzuki TN. 2015.. Assessment of predation risk through referential communication in incubating birds. . Sci. Rep. 5::10239
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  99. Suzuki TN. 2016.. Semantic communication in birds: evidence from field research over the past two decades. . Ecol. Res. 31::30719
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  100. Suzuki TN. 2018.. Alarm calls evoke a visual search image of a predator in birds. . PNAS 115::154145
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  101. Suzuki TN. 2019.. Imagery in wild birds: retrieval of visual information from referential alarm calls. . Learn. Behav. 47::11114
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. Suzuki TN. 2020.. Other species’ alarm calls evoke a predator-specific search image in birds. . Curr. Biol. 30::261620
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  103. Suzuki TN. 2021.. Animal linguistics: exploring referentiality and compositionality in bird calls. . Ecol. Res. 36::22131
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  104. Suzuki TN, Kutsukake N. 2017.. Foraging intention affects whether willow tits call to attract members of mixed-species flocks. . R. Soc. Open Sci. 4::170222
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  105. Suzuki TN, Matsumoto YK. 2022.. Experimental evidence for core-Merge in the vocal communication system of a wild passerine. . Nat. Commun. 13::5605
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  106. Suzuki TN, Sugita N. 2024.. The ‘after you’ gesture in a bird. . Curr. Biol. 34::R23132
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  107. Suzuki TN, Wheatcroft D, Griesse M. 2016.. Experimental evidence for compositional syntax in bird calls. . Nat. Commun. 7::10986
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  108. Suzuki TN, Wheatcroft D, Griesser M. 2017.. Wild birds use an ordering rule to decode novel call sequences. . Curr. Biol. 27::233136
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  109. Suzuki TN, Wheatcroft D, Griesser M. 2019.. The syntax–semantics interface in animal vocal communication. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 375::20180405
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  110. Terrace HS, Petitto LA, Sanders RJ, Bever TG. 1979.. Can an ape create a sentence?. Science 206::891902
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  111. Tomasello M. 1999.. The human adaptation for Culture. . Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 28::50929
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  112. Townsend SW, Manser MB. 2013.. Functionally referential communication in mammals: the past, present and the future. . Ethology 119::111
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  113. Vail L, Manica A, Bshary R. 2013.. Referential gestures in fish collaborative hunting. . Nat. Commun. 4::1765
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  114. Vernes SC, Kriengwatana BP, Beeck VC, Fischer J, Tyack PL, et al. 2021.. The multi-dimensional nature of vocal learning. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 376::20200236
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  115. von Frisch K. 1967.. The Dance Language and Orientation of Bees. Cambridge, MA:: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Wilke C, Lahiff NJ, Sabbid KH, Watts DP, Townsend SW, Slocombe KE. 2022.. Declarative referential gesturing in a wild chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). . PNAS 11::e2206486119
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  117. Yang C. 2013.. Ontogeny and phylogeny of language. . PNAS 110::632427
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  118. Zhang Y, Zhou L, Zuo J, Wang S, Meng W. 2023.. Analogies of human speech and bird song: from vocal learning behavior to its neural basis. . Front. Psychol. 14::1100969
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  119. Zuberbühler K. 2000.. Interspecific semantic communication in two forest monkeys. . Proc. R. Soc. B 267::71318
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  120. Zuberbühler K, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM. 1999.. Conceptual semantics in a nonhuman primate. . J. Comp. Psychol. 113::3342
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102622-030253
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102622-030253
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error