1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Environment and Resources
  4. Volume 49, 2024
  5. Article

Annual Review of Environment and Resources

Volume 49, 2024

Governance of the High Seas

Abstract

Covering two-thirds of the ocean and half of the planet's surface, the high seas are increasingly the focus of commercial activity and conservation ambitions. Contrary to narratives of a lawless frontier, they are governed by a dense network of sectoral institutions for shipping, fisheries, and other industries, although these collectively deal with conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in a fragmented and uneven manner. These gaps were the subject of nearly 20 years of negotiation, resulting in the adoption of the Agreement on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction in June 2023. The Agreement was designed to address access and benefit sharing associated with marine genetic resources; the establishment of area-based management tools such as marine protected areas, Environmental Impact Assessments, and capacity building; and the transfer of marine technology. Achieving coherence across public and private governance mechanisms will be a significant challenge as human activity increases on the high seas, but it is key to achieving ocean sustainability goals.

Keyword(s): biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction, marine genetic resources, marine protected areas, multilateralism, ocean equity, private governance
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-011023-022521
2024-10-18
2025-04-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/energy/49/1/annurev-environ-011023-022521.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-011023-022521&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.
    Braudel F. 1980.. A History of Civilizations, transl. R Mayne . Chicago:: Univ. Chicago Press ( from French )
     [Google Scholar]
  2. 2.
    Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B. 2011.. How many species are there on Earth and in the ocean?. PLOS Biol. 9:(8):e1001127
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.
    Costello MJ, Chaudhary C. 2017.. Marine biodiversity, biogeography, deep-sea gradients, and conservation. . Curr. Biol. 27:(11):R511–27
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.
    IPCC (Intergov. Panel Clim. Change). 2019.. IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere. Cambridge, UK/New York:: Cambridge Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.
    Jamieson AJ, Singleman G, Linley TD, Casey S. 2021.. Fear and loathing of the deep ocean: Why don't people care about the deep sea?. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 78:(3):797–809
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.
    Halpern BS, Frazier M, Afflerbach J, Lowndes JS, Micheli F, et al. 2019.. Recent pace of change in human impact on the world's ocean. . Sci. Rep. 9::11609
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.
    Jouffray J-B, Blasiak R, Norström AV, Österblom H, Nyström M. 2020.. The blue acceleration: the trajectory of human expansion into the ocean. . One Earth 2:(1):43–54
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.
    Campbell LM, Gray NJ, Fairbanks L, Silver JJ, Gruby RL, et al. 2016.. Global oceans governance: new and emerging issues. . Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 41::517–43
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.
    Kachelriess D. 2023.. The High Seas Biodiversity Treaty: an introduction to the agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. Rep. , IUCN (Int. Union Conserv. Nat. Nat. Resour.), Gland, Switz.:
     [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.
    Gjerde KM, Clark NA, Chazot C, Cremers K, Harden-Davies H, et al. 2022.. Getting beyond yes: fast-tracking implementation of the United Nations agreement for marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. . npj Ocean Sustain. 1::6
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.
    Pardo A. 1984.. The law of the sea: its past and its future. . Or. Law Rev. 63:(1):7–18
     [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.
    Vieira MB. 2003.. Mare liberum versus mare clausum: Grotius, Freitas, and Selden's debate on dominion over the seas. . J. Hist. Ideas 64:(3):361–77
     [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.
    United Nations. 1958.. 1958 Convention on the High Seas. 450 U. N. Treaty Ser. 11, April 29
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14.
    United Nations. 1982.. 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea. 1833 U. N. Treaty Ser. 397, Dec. 10
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.
    United Nations. 2023.. Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. Ref. C.N. 203.2023, Treaties XXI.10, June 19
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.
    Chan N. 2018.. “ Large ocean states”: sovereignty, small islands, and marine protected areas in global oceans governance. . Glob. Gov. Rev. Multilater. Int. Organ. 24:(4):537–55
     [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.
    Pretlove B, Blasiak R. 2018.. Mapping ocean governance and regulation. Work. Pap. , U. N. Glob. Compact Action Platf. Sustain. Ocean Bus., New York:
     [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.
    Tessnow–von Wysocki I, Vadrot ABM. 2020.. The voice of science on marine biodiversity negotiations: a systematic literature review. . Front. Mar. Sci. 7::614282
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.
    Pereira LM, Ortuño Crespo G, Amon DJ, Badhe R, Bandeira S, et al. 2023.. The living infinite: envisioning futures for transformed human–nature relationships on the high seas. . Mar. Policy 153::105644
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.
    U. N. Conf. Trade Dev. 2023.. Review of maritime transport: towards a green and just transition. Rep. , United Nations, New York:. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2023_en.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 1973.. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). 1340 U. N. Treaty Ser. 61, Febr. 17
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 1972.. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter. 1046 U. N. Treaty Ser. 120, June 23
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 2004.. International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM). Ref. BWM/CONF/36, July 15
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.
    Raaymakers S. 2007.. Possible effects of climate change on the spread of invasive marine species and implications for maritime industries. . WMU J. Marit. Aff. 6:(2):235–40
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 2017.. Complying with the Ballast Water Management Convention: stopping the spread of invasive aquatic species. Infographic, IMO, London:
     [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 2009.. Guidance document for minimizing the risk of ship strikes with cetaceans. Ref. T5/1.01 , IMO, London:
     [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 2014.. Guidelines for the reduction of underwater noise from container shipping to address adverse impacts on marine life. Ref. MEPC.1/Circ.906 , IMO, London:
     [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.
    United Nations. 1995.. Agreement for the implementation of the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks. Ref. A/CONF.164/37 , United Nations, New York:, Sept. 8
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.
    Løbach T, Petersson M, Haberkon E, Mannini P. 2020.. Regional fisheries management organizations and advisory bodies: activities and developments, 2000–2017. Fish. Aquacult. Tech. Pap. I-112 , Food Agric. Organ., Rome:
     [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.
    Haas B, McGee J, Fleming A, Haward M. 2020.. Factors influencing the performance of regional fisheries management organizations. . Mar. Policy 113::103787
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.
    Fischer J. 2022.. How transparent are RFMOs? Achievements and challenges. . Mar. Policy 136::104106
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.
    Wright G, Rochette J, Gjerde K, Seeger I. 2018.. The long and winding road: negotiating a treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Study, IDDRI, Paris:
     [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.
    Suárez-de Vivero JL. 2013.. The extended continental shelf: a geographical perspective of the implementation of article 76 of UNCLOS. . Ocean Coast. Manag. 73::113–26
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.
    Levin LA, Amon DJ, Lily H. 2020.. Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining. . Nat. Sustain. 3:(10):784–94
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.
    Amon DJ, Levin LA, Metaxas A, Mudd GM, Smith CR. 2022.. Heading to the deep end without knowing how to swim: Do we need deep-seabed mining?. One Earth 5:(3):220–23
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.
    Christiansen S, Durussel C, Guilhon M, Singh P, Unger S. 2022.. Towards an ecosystem approach to management in areas beyond national jurisdiction: REMPs for deep seabed mining and the proposed BBNJ instrument. . Front. Mar. Sci. 9::720146
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.
    Ardito G, Rovere M. 2022.. Racing the clock: recent developments and open environmental regulatory issues at the International Seabed Authority on the eve of deep-sea mining. . Mar. Policy 140::105074
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.
    Amon DJ, Gollner S, Morato T, Smith CR, Chen C, et al. 2022.. Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining. . Mar. Policy 138::105006
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.
    Levin LA, Amon DJ, Lily H. 2020.. Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining. . Nat. Sustain. 3:(10):784–94
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.
    IOC-UNESCO (Intergov. Oceanogr. Comm. U. N. Educ. Sci. Cult. Organ.). 2005.. Criteria and guidelines on the transfer for marine technology. Meet. Doc., IOC-UNESCO, Paris:. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139193
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.
    Int. Whal. Comm. 1946.. International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. 161 U. N. Treaty Ser. 13, Dec. 2
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.
    Cardeñosa D, Fields AT, Babcock EA, Zhang H, Feldheim K, et al. 2018.. CITES-listed sharks remain among the top species in the contemporary fin trade. . Conserv. Lett. 11:(4):e12457
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.
    Friedman K, Gabriel S, Abe O, Adnan Nuruddin A, Ali A, et al. 2018.. Examining the impact of CITES listing of sharks and rays in Southeast Asian fisheries. . Fish Fish. 19:(4):662–76
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.
    Virdin J, Vegh T, Jouffray J-B, Blasiak R, Mason S, et al. 2021.. The Ocean 100: transnational corporations in the ocean economy. . Sci. Adv. 7:(3):eabc8041
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.
    Prakash A, Potoski M. 2012.. Voluntary environmental programs: a comparative perspective. . J. Policy Anal. Manag. 31:(1):123–38
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.
    Borck JC, Coglianese C. 2009.. Voluntary environmental programs: assessing their effectiveness. . Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 34::305–24
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.
    Papandreou A, Koundouri P, Papadaki L. 2021.. Sustainable shipping: levers of change. . In The Ocean of Tomorrow, Vol. 2: The Transition to Sustainability, ed. P Koundouri , pp. 153–71. Cham, Switz:.: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.
    Blasiak R, Dauriach A, Jouffray J-B, Folke C, Österblom H, et al. 2021.. Evolving perspectives of stewardship in the seafood industry. . Front. Mar. Sci. 8::671837
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.
    Österblom H, Folke C, Rocha J, Bebbington J, Blasiak R, et al. 2022.. Scientific mobilization of keystone actors for biosphere stewardship. . Sci. Rep. 12::3802
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.
    Pacoureau N, Rigby CL, Kyne PM, Sherley RB, Winker H, et al. 2021.. Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays. . Nature 589:(7843):567–71
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.
    Beal M, Dias MP, Phillips RA, Oppel S, Hazin C, et al. 2021.. Global political responsibility for the conservation of albatrosses and large petrels. . Sci. Adv. 7:(10):eabd7225
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.
    Crespo GO, Dunn DC, Gianni M, Gjerde K, Wright G, Halpin PN. 2019.. High-seas fish biodiversity is slipping through the governance net. . Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3:(9):1273–76
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.
    Voosen P. 2022.. Ocean geoengineering scheme aces field test. . Science 378:(6626):1266–67
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.
    Blasiak R, Jouffray J-B, Wabnitz CCC, Sundström E, Österblom H. 2018.. Corporate control and global governance of marine genetic resources. . Sci. Adv. 4:(6):eaar5237
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.
    Haas B, Mackay M, Novaglio C, Fullbrook L, Murunga M, et al. 2022.. The future of ocean governance. . Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 32:(1):253–70
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.
    Jouffray J-B, Blasiak R, Nyström M, Österblom H, Tokunaga K, et al. 2021.. Blue acceleration: an ocean of risks and opportunities. Rep. , ORRAA (Ocean Risk Resil. Action Alliance)/Stockholm Resil. Cent., Washington, DC/Stockholm:
     [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.
    UNEP (U. N. Environ. Progr.). 1987.. Report of the Governing Council on the work of its 14th session. Rep. , UNEP, Nairobi:
     [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.
    Warner R. 2015.. Environmental assessment in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. . In Research Handbook on International Marine Environmental Law, ed. R Rayfuse, A Jaeckel, N Klein , pp. 291–312. Cheltenham, UK:: Elgar
     [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.
    Druel E. 2013.. Environmental Impact Assessments in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Study, IDDRI, Paris:
     [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.
    Ginzky H, Singh PA, Markus T. 2020.. Strengthening the International Seabed Authority's knowledge-base: addressing uncertainties to enhance decision-making. . Mar. Policy 114::103823
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.
    Clarke C, Lonsdale J-A, Judd A, Cormier R, Martini N, et al. 2022.. Cumulative effect assessment in the marine environment: a focus on the London Protocol/London Convention. . Environ. Sci. Policy 136::428–41
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.
    Scott KN. 2021.. Not an intractable challenge: geoengineering MSR in ABNJ. . In Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, ed. MH Nordquist, R Long , pp. 189–210. Leiden, Neth:.: Brill
     [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.
    Craik AN, Gu K. 2021.. Implementing Environmental Impact Assessment in areas beyond national jurisdiction: epistemic, institutional and normativity challenges. . In Research Handbook on International Marine Environmental Law, ed. R Rayfuse, A Jaeckel, N Klein , pp. 428–50. Cheltenham, UK:: Elgar
     [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.
    UNEP (U. N. Environ. Progr.). 2022.. Recommendation adopted by the Working Group on the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. Doc. CBD/COP/15/L.25 , Conf. Part. Conv. Biol. Divers., Montreal, Can.:, Dec. 18
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.
    Wright G, Ardron J, Gjerde K, Currie D, Rochette J. 2015.. Advancing marine biodiversity protection through regional fisheries management: a review of bottom fisheries closures in areas beyond national jurisdiction. . Mar. Policy 61::134–48
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.
    Arneth A, Leadley P, Claudet J, Coll M, Rondinini C, et al. 2023.. Making protected areas effective for biodiversity, climate and food. . Glob. Change Biol. 29:(14):3883–94
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.
    Roessger J, Claudet J, Horta e Costa B. 2022.. Turning the tide on protection illusions: the underprotected MPAs of the ‘OSPAR Regional Sea Convention.’ Mar. . Policy 142::105109
     [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.
    Sullivan-Stack J, Ahmadia GN, Andradi-Brown D, Barron A, Brooks CM, et al. 2024.. Assessments of expected MPA outcomes can inform and improve conservation practice: case studies using the MPA Guide. . Mar. Policy. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.
    Pike EP, MacCarthy JMC, Hameed SO, Harasta N, Grorud-Colvert K, et al. 2024.. Ocean protection quality is lagging behind quantity: applying a scientific framework to assess real marine protected area progress against the 30 by 30 target. . Conserv. Lett. 17:(3):e13020
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.
    Zupan M, Fragkopoulou E, Claudet J, Erzini K, Horta e Costa B, Gonçalves EJ. 2018.. Marine partially protected areas: drivers of ecological effectiveness. . Front. Ecol. Environ. 16:(7):381–87
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  71. 71.
    Grorud-Colvert K, Sullivan-Stack J, Roberts C, Constant V, Horta e Costa B, et al. 2021.. The MPA Guide: a framework to achieve global goals for the ocean. . Science 373:(6560):eabf0861
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.
    Faguet J-P. 2014.. Decentralization and governance. . World Dev. 53::2–13
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.
    Bell JB, Guijarro-Garcia E, Kenny A. 2019.. Demersal fishing in areas beyond national jurisdiction: a comparative analysis of regional fisheries management organisations. . Front. Mar. Sci. 6::596
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.
    Molenaar EJ. 2019.. Participation in regional fisheries management organizations. . In Strengthening International Fisheries Law in an Era of Changing Oceans, ed. R Caddell, EJ Molenaar , pp. 103–30. London:: Bloomsbury
     [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.
    FAO (Food Agric. Organ.). 2022.. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2022: towards blue transformation. Rep. , FAO, Rome:
     [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.
    Juan-Jordá MJ, Murua H, Arrizabalaga H, Dulvy NK, Restrepo V. 2018.. Report card on ecosystem-based fisheries management in tuna regional fisheries management organizations. . Fish Fish. 19:(2):321–39
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.
    Selig ER, Nakayama S, Wabnitz CCC, Österblom H, Spijkers J, et al. 2022.. Revealing global risks of labor abuse and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing. . Nat. Commun. 13::1612
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.
    Selig ER, Wabnitz CC, Nakayama S, Park J, Barnes R, et al. 2023.. Actions at port are essential for ending illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. . ESS Open Archive 168332205.56821298. https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.168332205.56821298/v1
  79. 79.
    Sala E, Mayorga J, Costello C, Kroodsma D, Palomares MLD, et al. 2018.. The economics of fishing the high seas. . Sci. Adv. 4:(6):eaat2504
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.
    Schiller L, Bailey M, Jacquet J, Sala E. 2018.. High seas fisheries play a negligible role in addressing global food security. . Sci. Adv. 4:(8):eaat8351
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.
    Sumaila UR, Lam VWY, Miller DD, Teh L, Watson RA, et al. 2015.. Winners and losers in a world where the high seas is closed to fishing. . Sci. Rep. 5::8481
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.
    White C, Costello C. 2014.. Close the high seas to fishing?. PLOS Biol. 12:(3):e1001826
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.
    Sumaila UR, Skerritt DJ, Schuhbauer A, Villasante S, Cisneros-Montemayor AM, et al. 2021.. WTO must ban harmful fisheries subsidies. . Science 374:(6567):544
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.
    Blasiak R, Jouffray J-B, Amon DJ, Moberg F, Claudet J, et al. 2022.. A forgotten element of the blue economy: marine biomimetics and inspiration from the deep sea. . PNAS Nexus 1:(4):pgac196
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.
    Deplazes-Zemp A, Abiven S, Schaber P, Schaepman M, Schaepman-Strub G, et al. 2018.. The Nagoya Protocol could backfire on the Global South. . Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2:(6):917–19
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.
    Prathapan KD, Pethiyagoda R, Bawa KS, Raven PH, Rajan PD, et al. 2018.. When the cure kills—CBD limits biodiversity research. . Science 360:(6396):1405–6
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.
    Blasiak R, Wynberg R, Grorud-Colvert K, Thambisetty S, Bandarra NM, et al. 2020.. The ocean genome and future prospects for conservation and equity. . Nat. Sustain. 3:(8):588–96
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  88. 88.
    Halewood M, Bagley MA, Wyss M, Scholz AH. 2023.. New benefit-sharing principles for digital sequence information. . Science 382:(6670):520–22
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.
    Blasiak R, Jouffray J-B, Wabnitz CCC, Österblom H. 2019.. Scientists should disclose origin in marine gene patents. . Trends Ecol. Evol. 34:(5):392–95
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.
    Leary D. 2018.. Marine genetic resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction: Do we need to regulate them in a new agreement?. Marit. Saf. Secur. Law J. 5::37–40
     [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.
    Arrieta JM, Arnaud-Haond S, Duarte CM. 2010.. What lies underneath: conserving the oceans’ genetic resources. . PNAS 107:(43):18318–24
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.
    Arnaud-Haond S, Arrieta JM, Duarte CM. 2011.. Marine biodiversity and gene patents. . Science 331:(6024):1521–22
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. 93.
    Natl. Acad. Sci. Eng. Med. 2021.. Ocean alkalinity enhancement.. In A Research Strategy for Ocean-Based Carbon Dioxide Removal and Sequestration. Washington, DC:: Natl. Acad.
     [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.
    Wu J, Keller DP, Oschlies A. 2023.. Carbon dioxide removal via macroalgae open-ocean mariculture and sinking: an Earth system modeling study. . Earth Syst. Dyn. 14:(1):185–221
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.
    Latham J, Bower K, Choularton T, Coe H, Connolly P, et al. 2012.. Marine cloud brightening. . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 3701974::4217–62
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.
    Kintisch E. 2010.. Could tiny bubbles cool the planet?. Science, March 26. https://www.science.org/content/article/could-tiny-bubbles-cool-planet
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.
    IMO (Int. Marit. Organ.). 2019.. Marine geoengineering techniques for climate change mitigation—LP/LC evaluates potential for marine environment effects. Press Brief., IMO, London:, Oct. 10
    [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.
    Eur. Comm. 2023.. Record-breaking North Atlantic Ocean temperatures contribute to extreme marine heatwaves. . Copernicus Blog, July 6. https://climate.copernicus.eu/record-breaking-north-atlantic-ocean-temperatures-contribute-extreme-marine-heatwaves
    [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.
    Voosen P. 2023.. ‘We're changing the clouds’: an unintended test of geoengineering is fueling record ocean warmth. . Science, Aug. 2. https://www.science.org/content/article/changing-clouds-unforeseen-test-geoengineering-fueling-record-ocean-warmth
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.
    Manshausen P, Watson-Parris D, Christensen MW, Jalkanen J-P, Stier P. 2022.. Invisible ship tracks show large cloud sensitivity to aerosol. . Nature 610:(7930):101–6
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  101. 101.
    Yuan T, Song H, Wood R, Wang C, Oreopoulos L, et al. 2022.. Global reduction in ship-tracks from sulfur regulations for shipping fuel. . Sci. Adv. 8:(29):eabn7988
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. 102.
    Jacquemont J, Blasiak R, Le Cam C, Le Gouellec M, Claudet J. 2022.. Ocean conservation boosts climate change mitigation and adaptation. . One Earth 5:(10):1126–38
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  103. 103.
    Epstein G, Middelburg JJ, Hawkins JP, Norris CR, Roberts CM. 2022.. The impact of mobile demersal fishing on carbon storage in seabed sediments. . Glob. Change Biol. 28:(9):2875–94
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  104. 104.
    Sala E, Mayorga J, Bradley D, Cabral RB, Atwood TB, et al. 2021.. Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate. . Nature 592:(7854):397–402
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  105. 105.
    Hiddink JG, van de Velde SJ, McConnaughey RA, De Borger E, Tiano J, et al. 2023.. Quantifying the carbon benefits of ending bottom trawling. . Nature 617:(7960):E1–2
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  106. 106.
    Levin LA, Alfaro-Lucas JM, Colaço A, Cordes EE, Craik N, et al. 2023.. Deep-sea impacts of climate interventions. . Science 379:(6636):978–81
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  107. 107.
    Lecerf M, Herr D, Thomas T, Delrieu E, Picourt L. 2021.. Coastal and marine ecosystems as nature-based solutions in new or updated Nationally Determined Contributions. Fact Sheet, Wetlands Int., Wageningen, Neth.:
     [Google Scholar]
  108. 108.
    Isensee K, ed. 2020.. Global ocean science report 2020: charting capacity for ocean sustainability. Rep. , UNESCO, Paris:
     [Google Scholar]
  109. 109.
    UNDESA (U. N. Dep. Econ. Soc. Aff.). 2015.. 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. Sustain. Dev. Goal, UNDESA, New York:
     [Google Scholar]
  110. 110.
    Lübker HM, Keys PW, Merrie A, Pereira LM, Rocha JC, Ortuño Crespo G. 2023.. Imagining sustainable futures for the high seas by combining the power of computation and narrative. . npj Ocean Sustain. 2::4
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  111. 111.
    Merrie A, Keys P, Metian M, Österblom H. 2018.. Radical ocean futures-scenario development using science fiction prototyping. . Futures 95::22–32
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  112. 112.
    Claudet J, Amon DJ, Blasiak R. 2021.. Transformational opportunities for an equitable ocean commons. . PNAS 118:(42):e2117033118
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  113. 113.
    Österblom H, Wabnitz CC, Tladi D, Allison E, Arnaud-Haond S, et al. 2020.. Towards ocean equity. Rep. , High-Level Panel Sustain. Ocean Econ., London:
     [Google Scholar]
  114. 114.
    Singh GG, Harden-Davies H, Swartz W, Cisneros-Montemayor AM, Ota Y. 2023.. An international panel for ocean sustainability needs to proactively address challenges facing existing science-policy platforms. . npj Ocean Sustain. 2::21
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  115. 115.
    Cisneros-Montemayor AM, Moreno-Báez M, Reygondeau G, Cheung WWL, Crosman KM, et al. 2021.. Enabling conditions for an equitable and sustainable blue economy. . Nature 591:(7850):396–401
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  116. 116.
    Valdes L, ed. 2017.. Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science around the world. Rep. , UNESCO, Paris:
     [Google Scholar]
  117. 117.
    Stuchtey M, Vincent A, Merkl A, Bucher M, Haugan PM, et al. 2020.. Ocean solutions that benefit people, nature and the economy. Rep. , High-Level Panel Sustain. Ocean Econ., London:
     [Google Scholar]
  118. 118.
    Silver JJ, Gray NJ, Campbell LM, Fairbanks LW, Gruby RL. 2015.. Blue economy and competing discourses in international oceans governance. . J. Environ. Dev. 24:(2):135–60
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  119. 119.
    McBain D. 2023.. What is the blue economy? Fact Sheet, Grantham Res. Inst. Clim. Change Environ., London Sch. Econ., London:. https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/explainers/what-is-the-blue-economy
    [Google Scholar]
  120. 120.
    United Nations. 2024.. Blue economy definitions. Doc. , United Nations, New York:. https://www.un.org/regularprocess/sites/www.un.org.regularprocess/files/rok_part_2.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  121. 121.
    WWF (World Wildl. Fund). n.d.. Principles for a sustainable blue economy. Rep. , WWF, Gland, Switz.:
     [Google Scholar]
  122. 122.
    Bennett NJ, Cisneros-Montemayor AM, Blythe J, Silver JJ, Singh G, et al. 2019.. Towards a sustainable and equitable blue economy. . Nat. Sustain. 2:(11):991–93
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  123. 123.
    Blasiak R, Pittman J, Yagi N, Sugino H. 2016.. Negotiating the use of biodiversity in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. . Front. Mar. Sci. 3::224
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  124. 124.
    Blasiak R, Durussel C, Pittman J, Sénit C-A, Petersson M, Yagi N. 2017.. The role of NGOs in negotiating the use of biodiversity in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. . Mar. Policy 81::1–8
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  125. 125.
    Leary D, Juniper SK. 2014.. Addressing the marine genetic resources issue: Is the debate heading in the wrong direction?. In The Limits of Maritime Jurisdiction, ed. C Schofield, S Lee, M-S Kwon , pp. 769–85. Leiden, Neth:.: Brill
     [Google Scholar]
  126. 126.
    Mendenhall E, De Santo E, Jankila M, Nyman E, Tiller R. 2022.. Direction, not detail: progress towards consensus at the 4th Intergovernmental Conference on Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction. . Mar. Policy 146::105309
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  127. 127.
    Mendenhall E, De Santo E, Nyman E, Tiller R. 2019.. A soft treaty, hard to reach: the 2nd Intergovernmental Conference for Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction. . Mar. Policy 108::103664
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  128. 128.
    De Santo EM, Mendenhall E, Nyman E, Tiller R. 2020.. Stuck in the middle with you (and not much time left): the 3rd Intergovernmental Conference on Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction. . Mar. Policy 117::103957
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  129. 129.
    Tiller R, De Santo E, Mendenhall E, Nyman E. 2019.. The once and future treaty: towards a new regime for biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. . Mar. Policy 99::239–42
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  130. 130.
    Friedman A. 2019.. Beyond “not undermining”: possibilities for global cooperation to improve environmental protection in areas beyond national jurisdiction. . ICES J. Mar. Sci. 76:(2):452–56
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  131. 131.
    Scanlon Z. 2018.. The art of “not undermining”: possibilities within existing architecture to improve environmental protections in areas beyond national jurisdiction. . ICES J. Mar. Sci. 75:(1):405–16
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  132. 132.
    Langlet A, Vadrot ABM. 2023.. Not ‘undermining’ who? Unpacking the emerging BBNJ regime complex. . Mar. Policy 147::105372
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  133. 133.
    Harden-Davies H, Snelgrove P. 2020.. Science collaboration for capacity building: advancing technology transfer through a treaty for biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction. . Front. Mar. Sci. 7::40
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  134. 134.
    Blasiak R, Jouffray J-B. 2024.. When will the BBNJ agreement deliver results?. npj Ocean Sustain. 3::21
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  135. 135.
    Claudet J, Brooks CM, Blasiak R. 2023.. Making protected areas in the high seas count. . Science 380:(6643):353–54
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  136. 136.
    Claudet J, Blythe J, Gill DA, Bennett NJ, Gurney GG, et al. 2024.. Advancing ocean equity at the nexus of development, climate and conservation policy. . Nat. Ecol. Evol. 8::12058
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  137. 137.
    Kim RE. 2024.. The likely impact of the BBNJ Agreement on the architecture of ocean governance. . Mar. Policy 165::106190
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-011023-022521
Loading
Governance of the High Seas
Annual Review of Environment and Resources 49, 549 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-011023-022521
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-011023-022521
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-environ-011023-022521
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error