1932

Abstract

This review aims to summarize the effects of intermittent fasting on markers of cardiometabolic health in humans. All forms of fasting reviewed here—alternate-day fasting (ADF), the 5:2 diet, and time-restricted eating (TRE)—produced mild to moderate weight loss (1–8% from baseline) and consistent reductions in energy intake (10–30% from baseline). These regimens may benefit cardiometabolic health by decreasing blood pressure, insulin resistance, and oxidative stress. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride levels are also lowered, but findings are variable. Other health benefits, such as improved appetite regulation and favorable changes in the diversity of the gut microbiome, have also been demonstrated, but evidence for these effects is limited. Intermittent fasting is generally safe and does not result in energy level disturbances or increased disordered eating behaviors. In summary, intermittent fasting is a safe diet therapy that can produce clinically significant weight loss (>5%) and improve several markers of metabolic health in individuals with obesity.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-052020-041327
2021-10-11
2024-12-11
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/nutr/41/1/annurev-nutr-052020-041327.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-052020-041327&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. 
    Akasheh RT, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Gabel K, Hoddy KK et al. 2020. Weight loss efficacy of alternate day fasting versus daily calorie restriction in subjects with subclinical hypothyroidism: a secondary analysis. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 45:340–43
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. 
    Anton SD, Lee SA, Donahoo WT, McLaren C, Manini T et al. 2019. The effects of time restricted feeding on overweight, older adults: a pilot study. Nutrients 11:1500
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. 
    Antoni R, Johnston KL, Collins AL, Robertson MD. 2016. Investigation into the acute effects of total and partial energy restriction on postprandial metabolism among overweight/obese participants. Br. J. Nutr. 115:951–59
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. 
    Bagherniya M, Butler AE, Barreto GE, Sahebkar A. 2018. The effect of fasting or calorie restriction on autophagy induction: a review of the literature. Ageing Res. Rev. 47:183–97
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5. 
    Bauman V, Ariel-Donges AH, Gordon EL, Daniels MJ, Xu D et al. 2019. Effect of dose of behavioral weight loss treatment on glycemic control in adults with prediabetes. BMJ Open Diabetes Res. Care 7:e000653
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6. 
    Beaulieu K, Casanova N, Oustric P, Turicchi J, Gibbons C et al. 2020. Matched weight loss through intermittent or continuous energy restriction does not lead to compensatory increases in appetite and eating behavior in a randomized controlled trial in women with overweight and obesity. J. Nutr. 150:623–33
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. 
    Benton D, Young HA. 2015. Do small differences in hydration status affect mood and mental performance?. Nutr. Rev. 73:Suppl. 283–96
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8. 
    Bhutani S, Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Aggour E, Calvo Y et al. 2013. Effect of exercising while fasting on eating behaviors and food intake. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 10:50
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9. 
    Bhutani S, Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Varady KA. 2013. Alternate day fasting and endurance exercise combine to reduce body weight and favorably alter plasma lipids in obese humans. Obesity 21:1370–79
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10. 
    Blau JN, Kell CA, Sperling JM. 2004. Water-deprivation headache: a new headache with two variants. Headache 44:79–83
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. 
    Blundell JE, Gibbons C, Caudwell P, Finlayson G, Hopkins M. 2015. Appetite control and energy balance: impact of exercise. Obes. Rev. 16:Suppl. 167–76
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12. 
    Bouter KE, van Raalte DH, Groen AK, Nieuwdorp M. 2017. Role of the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of obesity and obesity-related metabolic dysfunction. Gastroenterology 152:1671–78
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. 
    Brandhorst S, Longo VD. 2019. Dietary restrictions and nutrition in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Circ. Res. 124:952–65
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. 
    Brody JE. 2020. The benefits of intermittent fasting. New York Times Feb. 17. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/17/well/eat/the-benefits-of-intermittent-fasting.html
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. 
    Browning JD, Baxter J, Satapati S, Burgess SC. 2012. The effect of short-term fasting on liver and skeletal muscle lipid, glucose, and energy metabolism in healthy women and men. J. Lipid Res. 53:577–86
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. 
    Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF 3rd, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ 1989. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res 28:193–213
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. 
    Carlson O, Martin B, Stote KS, Golden E, Maudsley S et al. 2007. Impact of reduced meal frequency without caloric restriction on glucose regulation in healthy, normal-weight middle-aged men and women. Metabolism 56:1729–34
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. 
    Carter S, Clifton PM, Keogh JB. 2018. Effect of intermittent compared with continuous energy restricted diet on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized noninferiority trial. JAMA Netw. Open 1:e180756
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19. 
    Castaner O, Goday A, Park YM, Lee SH, Magkos F et al. 2018. The gut microbiome profile in obesity: a systematic review. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2018:4095789
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. 
    Catenacci VA, Pan Z, Ostendorf D, Brannon S, Gozansky WS et al. 2016. A randomized pilot study comparing zero-calorie alternate-day fasting to daily caloric restriction in adults with obesity. Obesity 24:1874–83
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. 
    Chaix A, Manoogian ENC, Melkani GC, Panda S. 2019. Time-restricted eating to prevent and manage chronic metabolic diseases. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 39:291–315
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. 
    Cho AR, Moon JY, Kim S, An KY, Oh M et al. 2019. Effects of alternate day fasting and exercise on cholesterol metabolism in overweight or obese adults: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Metabolism 93:52–60
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23. 
    Chow LS, Manoogian ENC, Alvear A, Fleischer JG, Thor H et al. 2020. Time-restricted eating effects on body composition and metabolic measures in humans who are overweight: a feasibility study. Obesity 28:860–69
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24. 
    Choy S, Kjellsson MC, Karlsson MO, de Winter W. 2016. Weight-HbA1c-insulin-glucose model for describing disease progression of type 2 diabetes. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharmacol. 5:11–19
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25. 
    Chung KW, Chung HY. 2019. The effects of calorie restriction on autophagy: role on aging intervention. Nutrients 11:2923
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26. 
    Cienfuegos S, Gabel K, Kalam F, Ezpeleta M, Wiseman E et al. 2020. Effects of 4- and 6-h time-restricted feeding on weight and cardiometabolic health: a randomized controlled trial in adults with obesity. Cell Metab 32:3366–78.e3
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27. 
    Clark I, Landolt HP. 2017. Coffee, caffeine, and sleep: a systematic review of epidemiological studies and randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med. Rev. 31:70–78
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. 
    Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. 2005. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial. JAMA 293:43–53
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. 
    Das SK, Gilhooly CH, Golden JK, Pittas AG, Fuss PJ et al. 2007. Long-term effects of 2 energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on dietary adherence, body composition, and metabolism in CALERIE: a 1-y randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 85:1023–30
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30. 
    de Cabo R, Mattson MP. 2019. Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 381:2541–51
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31. 
    de la Cuesta-Zuluaga J, Corrales-Agudelo V, Carmona JA, Abad JM, Escobar JS. 2018. Body size phenotypes comprehensively assess cardiometabolic risk and refine the association between obesity and gut microbiota. Int. J. Obes. 42:424–32
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32. 
    Ditschuneit HH, Frier HI, Flechtner-Mors M. 2002. Lipoprotein responses to weight loss and weight maintenance in high-risk obese subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 56:264–70
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. 
    Eshghinia S, Mohammadzadeh F. 2013. The effects of modified alternate-day fasting diet on weight loss and CAD risk factors in overweight and obese women. J. Diabetes Metab. Disord. 12:4
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. 
    Fitzgerald KC, Vizthum D, Henry-Barron B, Schweitzer A, Cassard SD et al. 2018. Effect of intermittent versus daily calorie restriction on changes in weight and patient-reported outcomes in people with multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord. 23:33–39
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. 
    Freckmann G, Hagenlocher S, Baumstark A, Jendrike N, Gillen RC et al. 2007. Continuous glucose profiles in healthy subjects under everyday life conditions and after different meals. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 1:695–703
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36. 
    Gabel K, Hoddy KK, Burgess HJ, Varady KA. 2019. Effect of 8-h time-restricted feeding on sleep quality and duration in adults with obesity. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 44:903–6
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37. 
    Gabel K, Hoddy KK, Haggerty N, Song J, Kroeger CM et al. 2018. Effects of 8-hour time restricted feeding on body weight and metabolic disease risk factors in obese adults: a pilot study. Nutr. Healthy Aging 4:345–53
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38. 
    Gabel K, Hoddy KK, Varady KA. 2019. Safety of 8-h time restricted feeding in adults with obesity. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 44:107–9
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39. 
    Gabel K, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Hoddy KK, Cienfuegos S et al. 2019. Differential effects of alternate-day fasting versus daily calorie restriction on insulin resistance. Obesity 27:1443–50
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. 
    Gabel K, Marcell J, Cares K, Kalam F, Cienfuegos S et al. 2020. Effect of time restricted feeding on the gut microbiome in adults with obesity: a pilot study. Nutr. Health 26:79–85
    [Google Scholar]
  41. 41. 
    Gayoso-Diz P, Otero-González A, Rodriguez-Alvarez MX, Gude F, García F et al. 2013. Insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) cut-off values and the metabolic syndrome in a general adult population: effect of gender and age: EPIRCE cross-sectional study. BMC Endocr. Disord. 13:47
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42. 
    Gill S, Panda S. 2015. A smartphone app reveals erratic diurnal eating patterns in humans that can be modulated for health benefits. Cell Metab 22:789–98
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43. 
    Gummesson A, Nyman E, Knutsson M, Karpefors M. 2017. Effect of weight reduction on glycated haemoglobin in weight loss trials in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 19:1295–305
    [Google Scholar]
  44. 44. 
    Halberg N, Henriksen M, Soderhamn N, Stallknecht B, Ploug T et al. 2005. Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J. Appl. Physiol. 99:2128–36
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45. 
    Hall KD, Ayuketah A, Brychta R, Cai H, Cassimatis T et al. 2019. Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: an inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake. Cell Metab 30:67–77.e3
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46. 
    Harvie MN, Pegington M, Mattson MP, Frystyk J, Dillon B et al. 2011. The effects of intermittent or continuous energy restriction on weight loss and metabolic disease risk markers: a randomized trial in young overweight women. Int. J. Obes. 35:714–27
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47. 
    Heilbronn LK, Smith SR, Martin CK, SD Anton, Ravussin E. 2005. Alternate-day fasting in nonobese subjects: effects on body weight, body composition, and energy metabolism. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81:69–73
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48. 
    Heiman ML, Greenway FL. 2016. A healthy gastrointestinal microbiome is dependent on dietary diversity. Mol. Metab. 5:317–20
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49. 
    Hirshkowitz M, Whiton K, Albert SM, Alessi C, Bruni O et al. 2015. National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary. Sleep Health 1:40–43
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50. 
    Hoddy KK, Gibbons C, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Barnosky A et al. 2016. Changes in hunger and fullness in relation to gut peptides before and after 8 weeks of alternate day fasting. Clin. Nutr. 35:1380–85
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51. 
    Hoddy KK, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Barnosky A, Bhutani S, Varady KA. 2014. Meal timing during alternate day fasting: impact on body weight and cardiovascular disease risk in obese adults. Obesity 22:2524–31
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. 
    Hoddy KK, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Barnosky AR, Bhutani S, Varady KA. 2015. Safety of alternate day fasting and effect on disordered eating behaviors. Nutr. J. 14:44
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53. 
    Houstis N, Rosen ED, Lander ES. 2006. Reactive oxygen species have a causal role in multiple forms of insulin resistance. Nature 440:944–48
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54. 
    Hutchison AT, Regmi P, Manoogian ENC, Fleischer JG, Wittert GA et al. 2019. Time-restricted feeding improves glucose tolerance in men at risk for type 2 diabetes: a randomized crossover trial. Obesity 27:724–32
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. 
    Jebeile H, Gow ML, Lister NB, Mosalman Haghighi M, Ayer J et al. 2019. Intermittent energy restriction is a feasible, effective, and acceptable intervention to treat adolescents with obesity. J. Nutr. 149:1189–97
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56. 
    Johnson JB, Summer W, Cutler RG, Martin B, Hyun DH et al. 2007. Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 42:665–74
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. 
    Jospe MR, Roy M, Brown RC, Haszard JJ, Meredith-Jones K et al. 2020. Intermittent fasting, Paleolithic, or Mediterranean diets in the real world: exploratory secondary analyses of a weight-loss trial that included choice of diet and exercise. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 111:503–14
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58. 
    Jumpertz R, Le DS, Turnbaugh PJ, Trinidad C, Bogardus C et al. 2011. Energy-balance studies reveal associations between gut microbes, caloric load, and nutrient absorption in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 94:58–65
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. 
    Kalam F, Gabel K, Cienfuegos S, Wiseman E, Ezpeleta M et al. 2019. Alternate day fasting combined with a low-carbohydrate diet for weight loss, weight maintenance, and metabolic disease risk reduction. Obes. Sci. Pract. 5:531–39
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. 
    Kalam F, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Gabel K, Song JH et al. 2019. Beverage intake during alternate-day fasting: relationship to energy intake and body weight. Nutr. Health 25:167–71
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61. 
    Khan MJ, Gerasimidis K, Edwards CA, Shaikh MG. 2016. Role of gut microbiota in the aetiology of obesity: proposed mechanisms and review of the literature. J. Obes. 2016:7353642
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62. 
    Klempel MC, Bhutani S, Fitzgibbon M, Freels S, Varady KA. 2010. Dietary and physical activity adaptations to alternate day modified fasting: implications for optimal weight loss. Nutr. J. 9:35
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63. 
    Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Varady KA. 2013. Alternate day fasting (ADF) with a high-fat diet produces similar weight loss and cardio-protection as ADF with a low-fat diet. Metabolism 62:137–43
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64. 
    Kodama S, Tanaka S, Saito K, Shu M, Sone Y et al. 2007. Effect of aerobic exercise training on serum levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol: a meta-analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. 167:999–1008
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65. 
    Kohok S. 2019. Why is intermittent fasting so popular?. BBC News Jun 3. https://www.bbc.com/news/health-48478529
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. 
    Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Klempel MC, Barnosky A, Bhutani S et al. 2018. Eating behavior traits of successful weight losers during 12 months of alternate-day fasting: an exploratory analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Nutr. Health 24:5–10
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67. 
    Larsen N, Vogensen FK, van den Berg FW, Nielsen DS, Andreasen AS et al. 2010. Gut microbiota in human adults with type 2 diabetes differs from non-diabetic adults. PLOS ONE 5:e9085
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. 
    Larson H. 2020. Easy ways to boost fiber in your daily diet. Eat Right. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics March 1. https://www.eatright.org/food/vitamins-and-supplements/types-of-vitamins-and-nutrients/easy-ways-to-boost-fiber-in-your-daily-diet
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69. 
    Le Chatelier E, Nielsen T, Qin J, Prifti E, Hildebrand F et al. 2013. Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers. Nature 500:541–46
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70. 
    Leon AS, Sanchez OA. 2001. Response of blood lipids to exercise training alone or combined with dietary intervention. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 33:6 SupplS502–502
    [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. 
    Lim KG, Morgenthaler TI, Katzka DA. 2018. Sleep and nocturnal gastroesophageal reflux: an update. Chest 154:963–71
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72. 
    Lira FS, Yamashita AS, Uchida MC, Zanchi NE, Gualano B et al. 2010. Low and moderate, rather than high intensity strength exercise induces benefit regarding plasma lipid profile. Diabetol. Metab. Syndr. 2:31
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73. 
    Lister NB, Jebeile H, Truby H, Garnett SP, Varady KA et al. 2020. Fast track to health—intermittent energy restriction in adolescents with obesity. A randomised controlled trial study protocol. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract. 14:80–90
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74. 
    Longo VD, Panda S. 2016. Fasting, circadian rhythms, and time-restricted feeding in healthy lifespan. Cell Metab 23:1048–59
    [Google Scholar]
  75. 75. 
    Lowe DA, Wu N, Rohdin-Bibby L, Moore AH, Kelly N et al. 2020. Effects of time-restricted eating on weight loss and other metabolic parameters in women and men with overweight and obesity: the TREAT randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern. Med. 180:1491–99
    [Google Scholar]
  76. 76. 
    Mann S, Beedie C, Jimenez A. 2014. Differential effects of aerobic exercise, resistance training and combined exercise modalities on cholesterol and the lipid profile: review, synthesis and recommendations. Sports Med 44:211–21
    [Google Scholar]
  77. 77. 
    Mariat D, Firmesse O, Levenez F, Guimarăes VD, Sokol H et al. 2009. The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio of the human microbiota changes with age. BMC Microbiol 9:123
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. 
    Mattson MP, Longo VD, Harvie M. 2017. Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes. Ageing Res. Rev. 39:46–58
    [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. 
    Moro T, Tinsley G, Bianco A, Marcolin G, Pacelli QF et al. 2016. Effects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding (16/8) on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained males. J. Transl. Med. 14:290
    [Google Scholar]
  80. 80. 
    Paoli A, Tinsley G, Bianco A, Moro T. 2019. The influence of meal frequency and timing on health in humans: the role of fasting. Nutrients 11:719
    [Google Scholar]
  81. 81. 
    Parvaresh A, Razavi R, Abbasi B, Yaghoobloo K, Hassanzadeh A et al. 2019. Modified alternate-day fasting versus calorie restriction in the treatment of patients with metabolic syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Med. 47:102187
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. 
    Peters BA, Shapiro JA, Church TR, Miller G, Trinh-Shevrin C et al. 2018. A taxonomic signature of obesity in a large study of American adults. Sci. Rep. 8:9749
    [Google Scholar]
  83. 83. 
    Phoi YY, Keogh JB. 2019. Dietary interventions for night shift workers: a literature review. Nutrients 11:2276
    [Google Scholar]
  84. 84. 
    Pomerleau M, Imbeault P, Parker T, Doucet E. 2004. Effects of exercise intensity on food intake and appetite in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80:1230–36
    [Google Scholar]
  85. 85. 
    Rains JL, Jain SK. 2011. Oxidative stress, insulin signaling, and diabetes. Free Radic. . Biol. Med. 50:567–75
    [Google Scholar]
  86. 86. 
    Redman LM, Ravussin E. 2011. Caloric restriction in humans: impact on physiological, psychological, and behavioral outcomes. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 14:275–87
    [Google Scholar]
  87. 87. 
    Rinninella E, Raoul P, Cintoni M, Franceschi F, Miggiano GAD et al. 2019. What is the healthy gut microbiota composition? A changing ecosystem across age, environment, diet, and diseases. Microorganisms 7:14
    [Google Scholar]
  88. 88. 
    Salgin B, Marcovecchio ML, Humphreys SM, Hill N, Chassin LJ et al. 2009. Effects of prolonged fasting and sustained lipolysis on insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in normal subjects. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 296:E454–454
    [Google Scholar]
  89. 89. 
    Schübel R, Nattenmüller J, Sookthai D, Nonnenmacher T, Graf ME et al. 2018. Effects of intermittent and continuous calorie restriction on body weight and metabolism over 50 wk: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 108:933–45
    [Google Scholar]
  90. 90. 
    Shortt C, Hasselwander O, Meynier A, Nauta A, Fernández EN et al. 2018. Systematic review of the effects of the intestinal microbiota on selected nutrients and non-nutrients. Eur. J. Nutr. 57:25–49
    [Google Scholar]
  91. 91. 
    Singh B, Saxena A. 2010. Surrogate markers of insulin resistance: a review. World J. Diabetes 1:36–47
    [Google Scholar]
  92. 92. 
    Spigt MG, Kuijper EC, Schayck CP, Troost J, Knipschild PG et al. 2005. Increasing the daily water intake for the prophylactic treatment of headache: a pilot trial. Eur. J. Neurol. 12:715–18
    [Google Scholar]
  93. 93. 
    Stanislawski MA, Dabelea D, Lange LA, Wagner BD, Lozupone CA. 2019. Gut microbiota phenotypes of obesity. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 5:18
    [Google Scholar]
  94. 94. 
    Stekovic S, Hofer SJ, Tripolt N, Aon MA, Royer P et al. 2020. Alternate day fasting improves physiological and molecular markers of aging in healthy, non-obese humans. Cell Metab 31:878–81
    [Google Scholar]
  95. 95. 
    Stensel D. 2010. Exercise, appetite and appetite-regulating hormones: implications for food intake and weight control. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 57:Suppl. 236–42
    [Google Scholar]
  96. 96. 
    St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, Chiuve SE, Johnson HM et al. 2017. Meal timing and frequency: implications for cardiovascular disease prevention: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 135:e96–96
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97. 
    Sumner AE, Cowie CC. 2008. Ethnic differences in the ability of triglyceride levels to identify insulin resistance. Atherosclerosis 196:696–703
    [Google Scholar]
  98. 98. 
    Sundfor TM, Svendsen M, Tonstad S. 2018. Effect of intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss, maintenance and cardiometabolic risk: a randomized 1-year trial. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 28:698–706
    [Google Scholar]
  99. 99. 
    Surdea-Blaga T, Negrutiu DE, Palage M, Dumitrascu DL. 2019. Food and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Curr. Med. Chem. 26:3497–511
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100. 
    Sutton EF, Beyl R, Early KS, Cefalu WT, Ravussin E, Peterson CM. 2018. Early time-restricted feeding improves insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, and oxidative stress even without weight loss in men with prediabetes. Cell Metab 27:1212–21.e3
    [Google Scholar]
  101. 101. 
    Sweeney TE, Morton JM. 2013. The human gut microbiome: a review of the effect of obesity and surgically induced weight loss. JAMA Surg 148:563–69
    [Google Scholar]
  102. 102. 
    Tilg H, Kaser A. 2011. Gut microbiome, obesity, and metabolic dysfunction. J. Clin. Investig. 121:2126–32
    [Google Scholar]
  103. 103. 
    Tinsley GM, Forsse JS, Butler NK, Paoli A, Bane AA et al. 2017. Time-restricted feeding in young men performing resistance training: a randomized controlled trial. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 17:200–7
    [Google Scholar]
  104. 104. 
    Tinsley GM, Moore ML, Graybeal AJ, Paoli A, Kim Y et al. 2019. Time-restricted feeding plus resistance training in active females: a randomized trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 110:628–40
    [Google Scholar]
  105. 105. 
    Trepanowski JF, Kroeger CM, Barnosky A, Klempel MC, Bhutani S et al. 2017. Effect of alternate-day fasting on weight loss, weight maintenance, and cardioprotection among metabolically healthy obese adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern. Med. 177:930–38
    [Google Scholar]
  106. 106. 
    Tseng C-H, Wu C-Y. 2019. The gut microbiome in obesity. J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 118:Suppl. 1S3–3
    [Google Scholar]
  107. 107. 
    Varady KA, Bhutani S, Church EC, Klempel MC. 2009. Short-term modified alternate-day fasting: a novel dietary strategy for weight loss and cardioprotection in obese adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90:1138–43
    [Google Scholar]
  108. 108. 
    Varady KA, Bhutani S, Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF et al. 2013. Alternate day fasting for weight loss in normal weight and overweight subjects: a randomized controlled trial. Nutr. J. 12:146
    [Google Scholar]
  109. 109. 
    Wegman MP, Guo MH, Bennion DM, Shankar MN, Chrzanowski SM et al. 2015. Practicality of intermittent fasting in humans and its effect on oxidative stress and genes related to aging and metabolism. Rejuvenation Res 18:162–72
    [Google Scholar]
  110. 110. 
    Westerterp KR. 2018. Exercise, energy balance and body composition. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 72:1246–50
    [Google Scholar]
  111. 111. 
    Wilkinson MJ, Manoogian ENC, Zadourian A, Lo H, Fakhouri S et al. 2020. Ten-hour time-restricted eating reduces weight, blood pressure, and atherogenic lipids in patients with metabolic syndrome. Cell Metab 31:92–104.e5
    [Google Scholar]
  112. 112. 
    Williamson DA, Bray GA, Ryan DH. 2015. Is 5% weight loss a satisfactory criterion to define clinically significant weight loss?. Obesity 23:2319–20
    [Google Scholar]
  113. 113. 
    Williamson DA, Martin CK, Anton SD, York-Crowe E, Han H et al. 2008. Is caloric restriction associated with development of eating-disorder symptoms? Results from the CALERIE trial. Health Psychol 27:S32–32
    [Google Scholar]
  114. 114. 
    Woo HI, Kwak SH, Lee Y, Choi JH, Cho YM, Om AS. 2015. A controlled, randomized, double-blind trial to evaluate the effect of vegetables and whole grain powder that is rich in dietary fibers on bowel functions and defecation in constipated young adults. J. Cancer Prev. 20:64–69
    [Google Scholar]
  115. 115. 
    Yang J, Wang H-P, Zhou L, Xu C-F. 2012. Effect of dietary fiber on constipation: a meta analysis. World J. Gastroenterol. 18:7378–83
    [Google Scholar]
  116. 116. 
    Zaulkffali AS, Md Razip NN, Syed Alwi SS, Abd Jalil A, Abd Mutalib MS et al. 2019. Vitamins D and E stimulate the PI3K-AKT signalling pathway in insulin-resistant SK-N-SH neuronal cells. Nutrients 11:2525
    [Google Scholar]
  117. 117. 
    Zeb F, Wu X, Chen L, Fatima S, Haq IU et al. 2020. Effect of time-restricted feeding on metabolic risk and circadian rhythm associated with gut microbiome in healthy males. Br. J. Nutr. 123:1216–26
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-052020-041327
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-052020-041327
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error