1932

Abstract

Obesity is a global health concern. Progress in understanding the physiology of obesity and weight reduction has provided new drug targets. Development and testing of new antiobesity medications (AOMs) has the potential to quickly expand options for treatment. In this review, we briefly summarize the physiology of obesity and weight reduction, as well as medications currently approved for weight management. We highlight the increasing use of incretin and nutrient-stimulated hormone-based therapies. We conclude with an overview of AOMs progressing through the pipeline and discuss their implications for the rapidly evolving field of obesity management.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-031124-101146
2025-01-23
2025-04-22
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/pharmtox/65/1/annurev-pharmtox-031124-101146.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-031124-101146&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.
    WHO (World Health Organ.). 2000.. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: report of a WHO consultation. WHO Tech. Rep. 894 , WHO, Geneva:. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/42330
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2.
    Risk Factor Collaboration NCD. 2024.. Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults. . Lancet 403::102750
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.
    World Obes. Fed. 2023.. World Obesity Atlas 2023. London:: World Obes. Fed. https://data.worldobesity.org/publications/?cat=19
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.
    Yuen M, Lui D, Kaplan L. 2016.. A systematic review and evaluation of current evidence reveals 195 obesity-associated disorders (OBAD). Poster presented at Obesity Week 2016 , New Orleans, LA:, Oct. 31
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.
    Cawley J, Biener A, Meyerhoefer C, Ding Y, Zvenyach T, et al. 2021.. Direct medical costs of obesity in the United States and the most populous states. . J. Manag. Care Spec. Pharm. 27::35466
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.
    Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM, Ard JD, Comuzzie AG, et al. 2014.. 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society. . J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 63::29853023
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.
    Bouchard C. 2021.. Genetics of obesity: what we have learned over decades of research. . Obesity 29::80220
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.
    Blüher M. 2019.. Obesity: global epidemiology and pathogenesis. . Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 15::28898
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.
    Heymsfield SB, Wadden TA. 2017.. Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and management of obesity. . N. Engl. J. Med. 376::25466
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.
    Lean M, Malkova D. 2016.. Altered gut and adipose tissue hormones in overweight and obese individuals: cause or consequence?. Int. J. Obes. 40::62232
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.
    Steinert RE, Feinle-Bisset C, Asarian L, Horowitz M, Beglinger C, Geary N. 2017.. Ghrelin, CCK, GLP-1, and PYY (3–36): secretory controls and physiological roles in eating and glycemia in health, obesity, and after RYGB. . Physiol. Rev. 97::41163
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.
    Wisser A-S, Habbel P, Wiedenmann B, Klapp BF, Mönnikes H, Kobelt P. 2010.. Interactions of gastrointestinal peptides: ghrelin and its anorexigenic antagonists. . Int. J. Pept. 2010::817457
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.
    Heymsfield SB, Gonzalez MC, Shen W, Redman L, Thomas D. 2014.. Weight loss composition is one-fourth fat-free mass: a critical review and critique of this widely cited rule. . Obes. Rev. 15::31021
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  14. 14.
    Cava E, Yeat NC, Mittendorfer B. 2017.. Preserving healthy muscle during weight loss. . Adv. Nutr. 8::51119
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.
    Sumithran P, Prendergast LA, Delbridge E, Purcell K, Shulkes A, et al. 2011.. Long-term persistence of hormonal adaptations to weight loss. . N. Engl. J. Med. 365::1597604
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.
    Polidori D, Sanghvi A, Seeley RJ, Hall KD. 2016.. How strongly does appetite counter weight loss? Quantification of the feedback control of human energy intake. . Obesity 24::228995
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.
    Most J, Redman LM. 2020.. Impact of calorie restriction on energy metabolism in humans. . Exp. Gerontol. 133::110875
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.
    Garvey WT. 2022.. New horizons. A new paradigm for treating to target with second-generation obesity medications. . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 107::e133947
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.
    Onakpoya IJ, Heneghan CJ, Aronson JK. 2016.. Post-marketing withdrawal of anti-obesity medicinal products because of adverse drug reactions: a systematic review. . BMC Med. 14::191
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.
    Sharretts J, Galescu O, Gomatam S, Andraca-Carrera E, Hampp C, Yanoff L. 2020.. Cancer risk associated with lorcaserin—the FDA's review of the CAMELLIA-TIMI 61 trial. . N. Engl. J. Med. 383::10002
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.
    EMA (Eur. Med. Agency). 2016.. Guideline on clinical evaluation of medicinal products used in weight management. Guidel., EMA, London:
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.
    FDA (US Food Drug Admin.). 2007.. Developing products for weight management revision 1—guidance for industry. Guid., FDA, Silver Spring, MD:
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.
    Bray GA, Ryan DH. 2018.. The role of medications in weight management. . In Handbook of Obesity Treatment, ed. T Wadden, GA Bray , pp. 34966. New York:: Guilford Press
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.
    Silverstone T. 1992.. Appetite suppressants: a review. . Drugs 43::82036
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.
    Elangovan A, Shah R, Smith ZL. 2021.. Pharmacotherapy for obesity—trends using a population level national database. . Obes. Surg. 31::110512
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.
    Colman E. 2005.. Anorectics on trial: a half century of federal regulation of prescription appetite suppressants. . Ann. Intern. Med. 143::38085
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.
    Hendricks E, Srisurapanont M, Schmidt S, Haggard M, Souter S, et al. 2014.. Addiction potential of phentermine prescribed during long-term treatment of obesity. . Int. J. Obes. 38::29298
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.
    Haddock C, Poston W, Dill P, Foreyt J, Ericsson M. 2002.. Pharmacotherapy for obesity: a quantitative analysis of four decades of published randomized clinical trials. . Int. J. Obes. 26::26273
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.
    Alli [package insert]. London:: GlaxoSmithKline; 2007.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.
    Xenical [package insert]. San Francisco, CA:: Genetech; 2012.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.
    Sjöström L, Rissanen A, Andersen T, Boldrin M, Golay A, et al. 1998.. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for weight loss and prevention of weight regain in obese patients. . Lancet 352::16772
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.
    Qsymia (phentermine and topiramate extended-release) [package insert]. Campbell, CA:: Vivus; 2023.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.
    Allison DB, Gadde KM, Garvey WT, Peterson CA, Schwiers ML, et al. 2012.. Controlled-release phentermine/topiramate in severely obese adults: a randomized controlled trial (EQUIP). . Obesity 20::33042
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.
    Greenway FL, Fujioka K, Plodkowski RA, Mudaliar S, Guttadauria M, et al. 2010.. Effect of naltrexone plus bupropion on weight loss in overweight and obese adults (COR-I): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. . Lancet 376::595605
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.
    Contrave [package insert]. La Jolla, CA:: Orexigen Ther.; 2014.
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.
    Apovian CM, Aronne LJ, Bessesen DH, McDonnell ME, Murad MH, et al. 2015.. Pharmacological management of obesity: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 100::34262
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.
    Bessesen DH, Van Gaal LF. 2018.. Progress and challenges in anti-obesity pharmacotherapy. . Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 6::23748
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.
    Khera R, Murad MH, Chandar AK, Dulai PS, Wang Z, et al. 2016.. Association of pharmacological treatments for obesity with weight loss and adverse events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. . JAMA 315::242434
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.
    Lent M, Vander Veur S, Peters J, Herring S, Wyatt H, et al. 2016.. Initial weight loss goals: Have they changed and do they matter?. Obes. Sci. Pract. 2::15461
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.
    Knudsen LB, Lau J. 2019.. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide. . Front. Endocrinol. 10::155
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.
    Tan Q, Akindehin SE, Orsso CE, Waldner RC, DiMarchi RD, et al. 2022.. Recent advances in incretin-based pharmacotherapies for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. . Front. Endocrinol. 13::838410
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.
    Saxenda [package insert]. Plainsboro, NJ:: Novo Nordisk; 2014.
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.
    Pi-Sunyer X, Astrup A, Fujioka K, Greenway F, Halpern A, et al. 2015.. A randomized, controlled trial of 3.0 mg of liraglutide in weight management. . N. Engl. J. Med. 373::1122
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.
    Wilding JP, Batterham RL, Calanna S, Davies M, Van Gaal LF, et al. 2021.. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity. . N. Engl. J. Med. 384::9891002
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.
    Wegovy [package insert]. Plainsboro, NJ:: Novo Nordisk; 2023.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.
    Kushner RF, Calanna S, Davies M, Dicker D, Garvey WT, et al. 2020.. Semaglutide 2.4 mg for the treatment of obesity: key elements of the STEP trials 1 to 5. . Obesity 28::105061
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.
    Davies M, Færch L, Jeppesen OK, Pakseresht A, Pedersen SD, et al. 2021.. Semaglutide 2·4 mg once a week in adults with overweight or obesity, and type 2 diabetes (STEP 2): a randomised, double-blind, double-dummy, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. . Lancet 397::97184
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.
    Hollander P, Gupta AK, Plodkowski R, Greenway F, Bays H, et al. 2013.. Effects of naltrexone sustained-release/bupropion sustained-release combination therapy on body weight and glycemic parameters in overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes. . Diabetes Care 36::402229
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.
    Wadden TA, Bailey TS, Billings LK, Davies M, Frias JP, et al. 2021.. Effect of subcutaneous semaglutide versus placebo as an adjunct to intensive behavioral therapy on body weight in adults with overweight or obesity: the STEP 3 randomized clinical trial. . JAMA 325::140313
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.
    Friedrichsen M, Breitschaft A, Tadayon S, Wizert A, Skovgaard D. 2021.. The effect of semaglutide 2.4 mg once weekly on energy intake, appetite, control of eating, and gastric emptying in adults with obesity. . Diabetes Obes. Metab. 23::75462
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.
    Wadden TA, Chao AM, Moore M, Tronieri JS, Gilden A, et al. 2023.. The role of lifestyle modification with second-generation anti-obesity medications: comparisons, questions, and clinical opportunities. . Curr. Obes. Rep. 12::45373
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.
    Rubino D, Abrahamsson N, Davies M, Hesse D, Greenway FL, et al. 2021.. Effect of continued weekly subcutaneous semaglutide versus placebo on weight loss maintenance in adults with overweight or obesity: the STEP 4 randomized clinical trial. . JAMA 325::141425
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.
    Garvey WT, Batterham RL, Bhatta M, Buscemi S, Christensen LN, et al. 2022.. Two-year effects of semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity: the STEP 5 trial. . Nat. Med. 28::208391
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.
    Wilding JP, Batterham RL, Davies M, Van Gaal LF, Kandler K, et al. 2022.. Weight regain and cardiometabolic effects after withdrawal of semaglutide: the STEP 1 trial extension. . Diabetes Obes. Metab. 24::155364
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.
    Lincoff AM, Brown-Frandsen K, Colhoun HM, Deanfield J, Emerson SS, et al. 2023.. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in obesity without diabetes. . N. Engl. J. Med. 389::222132
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.
    Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, Wharton S, Connery L, et al. 2022.. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity. . N. Engl. J. Med. 387::20516
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.
    Zepbound [package insert]. Indianapolis, IN:: Eli Lilly Co.; 2023.
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.
    Garvey WT, Frias JP, Jastreboff AM, le Roux CW, Sattar N, et al. 2023.. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes (SURMOUNT-2): a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. . Lancet 402::61326
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.
    Wadden TA, Chao AM, Machineni S, Kushner R, Ard J, et al. 2023.. Tirzepatide after intensive lifestyle intervention in adults with overweight or obesity: the SURMOUNT-3 phase 3 trial. . Nat. Med. 29::290918
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.
    Aronne LJ, Sattar N, Horn DB, Bays HE, Wharton S, et al. 2024.. Continued treatment with tirzepatide for maintenance of weight reduction in adults with obesity: the SURMOUNT-4 randomized clinical trial. . JAMA 331::3848
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.
    Clément K, van den Akker E, Argente J, Bahm A, Chung WK, et al. 2020.. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency: single-arm, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trials. . Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 8::96070
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.
    Imcivree [package insert]. Boston, MA:: Rhythm Pharm; 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.
    Haqq AM, Chung WK, Dollfus H, Haws RM, Martos-Moreno , et al. 2022.. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, a melanocortin-4 receptor agonist, in patients with Bardet-Biedl syndrome and Alström syndrome: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial with an open-label period. . Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 10::85968
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.
    Jastreboff AM, Kushner RF. 2023.. New frontiers in obesity treatment: GLP-1 and nascent nutrient-stimulated hormone-based therapeutics. . Annu. Rev. Med. 74::12539
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.
    Marino AB, Cole SW, Nuzum DS. 2014.. Alternative dosing strategies for liraglutide in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. . Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 71::22326
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.
    Liu Y, Ruan B, Jiang H, Le S, Liu Y, et al. 2023.. The weight-loss effect of GLP-1RAs glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in non-diabetic individuals with overweight or obesity: a systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 118::61426
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.
    Andersen A, Knop FK, Vilsbøll T. 2021.. A pharmacological and clinical overview of oral semaglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. . Drugs 81::100330
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.
    Bucheit JD, Pamulapati LG, Carter N, Malloy K, Dixon DL, Sisson EM. 2020.. Oral semaglutide: a review of the first oral glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist. . Diabetes Technol. Ther. 22::1018
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.
    Knop FK, Aroda VR, do Vale RD, Holst-Hansen T, Laursen PN, et al. 2023.. Oral semaglutide 50 mg taken once per day in adults with overweight or obesity (OASIS 1): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. . Lancet 402::70519
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.
    Wharton S, Blevins T, Connery L, Rosenstock J, Raha S, et al. 2023.. Daily oral GLP-1 receptor agonist orforglipron for adults with obesity. . N. Engl. J. Med. 389::87788
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  71. 71.
    Pfizer. 2023.. Pfizer announces topline phase 2b results of oral GLP-1R agonist, danuglipron, in adults with obesity. Press Release, Dec. 1. https://www.pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer-announces-topline-phase-2b-results-oral-glp-1r
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.
    Mathiesen DS, Bagger JI, Knop FK. 2022.. Long-acting amylin analogues for the management of obesity. . Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 29::18390
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.
    Goldsbury CS, Cooper GJ, Goldie KN, Müller SA, Saafi EL, et al. 1997.. Polymorphic fibrillar assembly of human amylin. . J. Struct. Biol. 119::1727
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.
    Young AA, Vine W, Gedulin BR, Pittner R, Janes S, et al. 1996.. Preclinical pharmacology of pramlintide in the rat: comparisons with human and rat amylin. . Drug Dev. Res. 37::23148
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.
    Ravussin E, Smith SR, Mitchell JA, Shringarpure R, Shan K, et al. 2009.. Enhanced weight loss with pramlintide/metreleptin: an integrated neurohormonal approach to obesity pharmacotherapy. . Obesity 17::173643
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.
    Smith SR, Aronne LJ, Burns CM, Kesty NC, Halseth AE, Weyer C. 2008.. Sustained weight loss following 12-month pramlintide treatment as an adjunct to lifestyle intervention in obesity. . Diabetes Care 31::181623
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.
    Dunican KC, Adams NM, Desilets AR. 2010.. The role of pramlintide for weight loss. . Ann. Pharmacother. 44::53845
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.
    Bailey CJ, Flatt PR, Conlon JM. 2023.. An update on peptide-based therapies for type 2 diabetes and obesity. . Peptides 161::170939
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  79. 79.
    Lau DC, Erichsen L, Francisco AM, Satylganova A, le Roux CW, et al. 2021.. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. . Lancet 398::216072
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.
    Di Marzo V, Després J-P. 2009.. CB1 antagonists for obesity—what lessons have we learned from rimonabant?. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 5::63338
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.
    Murphy T, Le Foll B. 2020.. Targeting the endocannabinoid CB1 receptor to treat body weight disorders: a preclinical and clinical review of the therapeutic potential of past and present CB1 drugs. . Biomolecules 10::855
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.
    Crater GD, Lalonde K, Ravenelle F, Harvey M, Després JP. 2024.. Effects of CB1R inverse agonist, INV-202, in patients with features of metabolic syndrome. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind phase 1b study. . Diabetes Obes. Metab. 26::64249
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.
    Grundlingh J, Dargan PI, El-Zanfaly M, Wood DM. 2011.. 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP): a weight loss agent with significant acute toxicity and risk of death. . J. Med. Toxicol. 7::20512
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.
    Perry RJ, Zhang D, Zhang X-M, Boyer JL, Shulman GI. 2015.. Controlled-release mitochondrial protonophore reverses diabetes and steatohepatitis in rats. . Science 347::125356
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.
    Noureddin M, Khan S, Portell F, Jorkasky D, Dennis J, et al. 2023.. Safety and efficacy of once-daily HU6 versus placebo in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and high BMI: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2a trial. . Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8::1094105
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.
    Shin W, Hompesch M, Byeon J, Kang S, Choi J, Baek S. 2023.. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of multiple ascending doses of the novel long-acting glucagon analogue HM15136 in overweight and obese patients with co-morbidities. . Diabetes Obes. Metab. 25::272333
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.
    Benichou O, Coskun T, Gonciarz MD, Garhyan P, Adams AC, et al. 2023.. Discovery, development, and clinical proof of mechanism of LY3463251, a long-acting GDF15 receptor agonist. . Cell Metab. 35::27486.e10
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  88. 88.
    Enebo LB, Berthelsen KK, Kankam M, Lund MT, Rubino DM, et al. 2021.. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2·4 mg for weight management: a randomised, controlled, phase 1b trial. . Lancet 397::173648
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.
    Frias JP, Deenadayalan S, Erichsen L, Knop FK, Lingvay I, et al. 2023.. Efficacy and safety of co-administered once-weekly cagrilintide 2·4 mg with once-weekly semaglutide 2·4 mg in type 2 diabetes: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled, phase 2 trial. . Lancet 402::72030
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.
    Petersen K, Sullivan J. 2001.. Effects of a novel glucagon receptor antagonist (Bay 27-9955) on glucagon-stimulated glucose production in humans. . Diabetologia 44::201824
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.
    Parker J, McCullough K, Field B, Minnion J, Martin N, et al. 2013.. Glucagon and GLP-1 inhibit food intake and increase c-fos expression in similar appetite regulating centres in the brainstem and amygdala. . Int. J. Obes. 37::139198
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.
    Hope DC, Vincent ML, Tan TM. 2021.. Striking the balance: GLP-1/glucagon co-agonism as a treatment strategy for obesity. . Front. Endocrinol. 12::735019
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. 93.
    Zimmermann T, Thomas L, Baader-Pagler T, Haebel P, Simon E, et al. 2022.. BI 456906: discovery and preclinical pharmacology of a novel GCGR/GLP-1R dual agonist with robust anti-obesity efficacy. . Mol. Metab. 66::101633
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.
    le Roux CW, Steen O, Lucas KJ, Startseva E, Unseld A, Hennige AM. 2024.. Glucagon and GLP-1 receptor dual agonist survodutide for obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. . Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 12::16273
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.
    Ji L, Jiang H, Cheng Z, Qiu W, Liao L, et al. 2023.. A phase 2 randomised controlled trial of mazdutide in Chinese overweight adults or adults with obesity. . Nat. Commun. 14::8289
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.
    Altimmune. 2023.. Altimmune announces positive topline results from MOMENTUM 48-week phase 2 obesity trial of pemvidutide. Press Release, Nov. 30. https://ir.altimmune.com/news-releases/news-release-details/altimmune-announces-positive-topline-results-momentum-48-week
    [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.
    Müller T, Finan B, Clemmensen C, DiMarchi R, Tschöp M. 2017.. The new biology and pharmacology of glucagon. . Physiol. Rev. 97::72166
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.
    Friedrichsen MH, Endahl L, Kreiner FF, Goldwater R, Kankam M, et al. 2023.. Results from three phase 1 trials of NNC9204-1177, a glucagon/GLP-1 receptor co-agonist: effects on weight loss and safety in adults with overweight or obesity. . Mol. Metab. 78::101801
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.
    Véniant MM, Lu S-C, Atangan L, Komorowski R, Stanislaus S, et al. 2024.. A GIPR antagonist conjugated to GLP-1 analogues promotes weight loss with improved metabolic parameters in preclinical and phase 1 settings. . Nat. Med. 6::290303
    [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.
    Lu S-C, Chen M, Atangan L, Killion EA, Komorowski R, et al. 2021.. GIPR antagonist antibodies conjugated to GLP-1 peptide are bispecific molecules that decrease weight in obese mice and monkeys. . Cell Rep. Med. 2::100263
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  101. 101.
    Lafferty RA, Flatt PR, Irwin N. 2018.. Emerging therapeutic potential for peptide YY for obesity-diabetes. . Peptides 100::26974
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. 102.
    Batterham RL, Ffytche DH, Rosenthal JM, Zelaya FO, Barker GJ, et al. 2007.. PYY modulation of cortical and hypothalamic brain areas predicts feeding behaviour in humans. . Nature 450::1069
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  103. 103.
    Baldassano S, Amato A, Mulè F. 2016.. Influence of glucagon-like peptide 2 on energy homeostasis. . Peptides 86::15
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  104. 104.
    Sonne N, Karsdal MA, Henriksen K. 2021.. Mono and dual agonists of the amylin, calcitonin, and CGRP receptors and their potential in metabolic diseases. . Mol. Metab. 46::101109
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  105. 105.
    Garito T, Zakaria M, Papanicolaou DA, Li Y, Pinot P, et al. 2018.. Effects of bimagrumab, an activin receptor type II inhibitor, on pituitary neurohormonal axes. . Clin. Endocrinol. 88::90819
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  106. 106.
    Heymsfield SB, Coleman LA, Miller R, Rooks DS, Laurent D, et al. 2021.. Effect of bimagrumab versus placebo on body fat mass among adults with type 2 diabetes and obesity: a phase 2 randomized clinical trial. . JAMA Network. Open. 4::e2033457
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  107. 107.
    Loomans HA, Andl CD. 2016.. Activin receptor-like kinases: a diverse family playing an important role in cancer. . Am. J. Cancer Res. 6::243147
    [Google Scholar]
  108. 108.
    Gregory SJ, Kaiser UB. 2004.. Regulation of gonadotropins by inhibin and activin. . Proc. Semin. Reprod. Med. 22::25367
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  109. 109.
    Jastreboff AM, Kaplan LM, Frías JP, Wu Q, Du Y, et al. 2023.. Triple–hormone-receptor agonist retatrutide for obesity—a phase 2 trial. . N. Engl. J. Med. 389::51426
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  110. 110.
    Donnelly JE, Blair SN, Jakicic JM, Manore MM, Rankin JW, Smith BK. 2009.. Appropriate physical activity intervention strategies for weight loss and prevention of weight regain for adults. . Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 41::45971
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  111. 111.
    US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. 2018.. Physical activity guidelines for Americans. Guidel., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Washington, DC:. https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/Physical_Activity_Guidelines_2nd_edition.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  112. 112.
    US Dep. Agric., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. 2020.. Dietary guidelines for American, 2020–2025. Guidel., US Dep. Agric., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Washington, DC:. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/
    [Google Scholar]
  113. 113.
    Luppino FS, de Wit LM, Bouvy PF, Stijnen T, Cuijpers P, et al. 2010.. Overweight, obesity, and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67::22029
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  114. 114.
    Simon GE, Von Korff M, Saunders K, Miglioretti DL, Crane PK, et al. 2006.. Association between obesity and psychiatric disorders in the US adult population. . Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63::82430
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  115. 115.
    Thomas CE, Mauer EA, Shukla AP, Rathi S, Aronne LJ. 2016.. Low adoption of weight loss medications: a comparison of prescribing patterns of antiobesity pharmacotherapies and SGLT2s. . Obesity 24::195561
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-031124-101146
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-031124-101146
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error