1932
0

Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 76, 2025

Gender Identity and Aggression

  • Jennifer K. Bosson1
  • Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA; email: [email protected]
  • Vol. 76:635-661 (Volume publication date January 2025)
  • First published as a Review in Advance on October 30, 2024
  • Copyright © 2025 by the author(s).
    This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See credit lines of images or other third-party material in this article for license information.

Abstract

Gender identity, or people's deeply felt, internal sense of their gender, plays an important role in aggression perpetration and victimization. In this article, I review and organize the psychological research literatures on gender identity–based aggression. I first discuss the need to move beyond binary, cisgender understandings of gender by embracing expansive definitions that more fully capture people's experiences and identities. Next, I summarize relevant research indicating two paths from gender identity to aggression. In one path, individuals with a more masculine (i.e., dominant, agentic) gender identity use aggression proactively, motivated by pursuit of social dominance. In another path, individuals with a more uncertain (i.e., insecure, precarious) gender identity use aggression defensively—and often toward vulnerable, gender nonconforming targets—as a means of protecting their gender identity against threats. I end by identifying important areas for future research and considering how interventions might best mitigate gender identity–based aggression.

Keyword(s): aggression, aggressive victimization, defensiveness, dominance, gender identity, gender nonconformity
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456
2025-01-17
2025-06-23
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/76/1/annurev-psych-020124-115456.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Amato FJ. 2012.. The relationship of violence to gender role conflict and conformity to masculine norms in a forensic sample. . J. Men's Stud. 20:(3):187–208
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  2. Anderson CA, Bushman BJ. 2002.. Human aggression. . Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53::27–51
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. APA (Am. Psychol. Assoc.). 2016.. Resolution on Data About Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. Washington, DC:: APA
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Archer J. 2004.. Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: a meta-analytic review. . Rev. Gen. Psychol. 8:(4):291–322
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Baugher AR, Gazmararian JA. 2015.. Masculine gender role stress and violence: a literature review and future directions. . Aggress. Violent Behav. 24::107–12
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bem SL. 1974.. The measurement of psychological androgyny. . J. Consult. Clin. Psych. 42:(2):155–62
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. Berdahl JL. 2007.. Harassment based on sex: protecting social status in the context of gender hierarchy. . Acad. Manag. Rev. 32:(2):641–58
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. Berke DS, Sloan CA, Parrott D, Zeichner A. 2012.. Effects of female gender role and gender norm conformity on aggression in men: Does positive masculinity reduce the risk?. Psychol. Men Masculinity 13:(4):367–78
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. Berke DS, Wilson L, Mouilso E, Speir Z, Zeichner A. 2015.. Isolating the gendered component of men's physical aggression. . Sex Roles 72:(11):509–20
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. Berkowitz AD, Bogen KW, Lopez RJM, Mulla MM, Orchowski LM. 2022.. The social norms approach as a strategy to prevent violence perpetrated by men and boys: a review of the literature. . In Engaging Boys and Men in Sexual Assault Prevention: Theory, Research, and Practice, ed. LM Orchowski, AD Berkowitz , pp. 49–181. Cambridge, MA:: Academic
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Bernard JL, Bernard SL, Bernard ML. 1985.. Courtship violence and sex-typing. . Fam. Relat. 34:(4):573–76
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. Bettencourt BA, Miller N. 1996.. Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis. . Psychol. Bull. 119:(3):422–47
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  13. Bettinsoli ML, Suppes A, Napier JL. 2020.. Predictors of attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women in 23 countries. . Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 11:(5):697–708
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  14. Bilbao-Ubillos J. 2013.. Another approach to measuring human development: the Composite Dynamic Human Development Index. . Soc. Indic. Res. 111::473–84
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  15. Borumandnia N, Khadembashi N, Tabatabaei M, Alavi Majd H. 2020.. The prevalence rate of sexual violence worldwide: a trend analysis. . BMC Public Health 20::1835
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bosson JK, Jurek P, Vandello JA, Kosakowska-Berezecka N, Olech M, et al. 2021.. Psychometric properties and correlates of precarious manhood beliefs in 62 nations. . J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 52:(3):231–58
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  17. Bosson JK, Vandello JA, Burnaford RM, Weaver JR, Arzu Wasti S. 2009.. Precarious manhood and displays of physical aggression. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 35:(5):623–34
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  18. Bosson JK, Wilkerson M, Kosakowska-Berezecka N, Jurek P, Olech M. 2022.. Harder won and easier lost? Testing the double standard in gender rules in 62 countries. . Sex Roles 87:(1):1–19
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  19. Bränström R, Fellman D, Pachankis J. 2023.. Structural stigma and sexual minority victimization across 28 countries: the moderating role of gender, gender nonconformity, and socioeconomic status. . J. Interpers. Violence 38:(3–4):3563–85
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  20. Brown A. 2022.. About 5% of young adults in the U.S. say their gender is different from their sex assigned at birth. Rep. , Pew Res. Cent., Washington, DC:
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Brown DE. 1991.. italicHuman Universals. New York:: McGraw-Hill
  22. Brown RP, Baughman K, Carvallo M. 2018.. Culture, masculine honor, and violence toward women. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 44:(4):538–49
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  23. Brown RP, Osterman LL, Barnes CD. 2009.. School violence and the culture of honor. . Psychol. Sci. 20:(11):1400–5
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  24. Buchanan NT, Settles IH, Hall AT, O'Connor RC. 2014.. A review of organizational strategies for reducing sexual harassment: insights from the US military. . J. Soc. Issues 70:(4):687–702
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  25. Campbell A, Muncer S. 1987.. Models of anger and aggression in the social talk of women and men. . J. Theory Soc. Behav. 17:(4):489–511
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  26. Card NA, Stucky BD, Sawalani GM, Little TD. 2008.. Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: a meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. . Child Dev. 79:(5):1185–229
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  27. Casper DM, Card NA, Barlow C. 2020.. Relational aggression and victimization during adolescence: a meta-analytic review of unique associations with popularity, peer acceptance, rejection, and friendship characteristics. . J. Adolesc. 80:(1):41–52
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  28. Chalman ST, O'Dea CJ, Renfroe J, Saucier DA. 2021.. It's a man's job? An investigation of shifting (masculine) honor expectations for men and women. . Personal. Individ. Differ. 168::110259
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  29. Cheng JT, Tracy JL, Foulsham T, Kingstone A, Henrich J. 2013.. Two ways to the top: evidence that dominance and prestige are distinct yet viable avenues to social rank and influence. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 104:(1):103–25
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  30. Cohn A, Zeichner A. 2006.. Effects of masculine identity and gender role stress on aggression in men. . Psychol. Men Masculinity 7:(4):179–90
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  31. Cole ER. 2009.. Intersectionality and research in psychology. . Am. Psychol. 64:(3):170–80
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. Cortina LM, Areguin MA. 2021.. Putting people down and pushing them out: sexual harassment in the workplace. . Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 8::285–309
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  33. Costa PA, Davies M. 2012.. Portuguese adolescents’ attitudes toward sexual minorities: transphobia, homophobia, and gender role beliefs. . J. Homosex. 59:(10):1424–42
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. Coulter RWS, Mair C, Miller E, Blosnich JR, Matthews DD, McCauley HL. 2017.. Prevalence of past-year sexual assault victimization among undergraduate students: exploring differences by and intersections of gender identity, sexual identity, and race/ethnicity. . Prev. Sci. 18:(6):726–36
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. Craig W, Harel-Fisch Y, Fogel-Grinvald H, Dostaler S, Hetland J, et al. 2009.. A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries. . Int. J. Public Health 54:(Suppl. 2):216–24
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  36. Crenshaw K. 1991.. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. . Stanford Law Rev. 43:(6):1241–99
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  37. Cuddy AJC, Wolf EB, Glick P, Crotty S, Chong J, Norton MI. 2015.. Men as cultural ideals: Cultural values moderate gender stereotype content. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 109:(4):622–35
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  38. Daly M, Wilson M. 1990.. Killing the competition. . Hum. Nature 1:(1):81–107
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  39. Diamond LM, Alley J. 2022.. Rethinking minority stress: a social safety perspective on the health effects of stigma in sexually-diverse and gender-diverse populations. . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 138::104720
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. Dolliver MJ. 2019.. The impact of gender identity on female offending: a quantitative assessment using the BSRI. . Women Crim. Justice 29:(2):73–86
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. Dunn S, Vaillancourt T, Brittain H. 2023.. Special report: supporting safer digital spaces. Rep. , Cent. Int. Gov. Innov., Ontario, Canada:
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Eagly AH, Nater C, Miller DI, Kaufmann M, Sczesny S. 2020.. Gender stereotypes have changed: a cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. . Am. Psychol. 75:(3):301–15
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  43. Egan SK, Perry DG. 2001.. Gender identity: a multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. . Dev. Psychol. 37:(4):451–63
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. Eisler RM, Blalock JA. 1991.. Masculine gender role stress: implications for the assessment of men. . Clin. Psychol. Rev. 11:(1):45–60
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  45. Else-Quest NM, Hyde JS. 2016.. Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. . Psychol. Women Q. 40:(3):319–36
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  46. Exner-Cortens D, Baker E, Craig W. 2021.. The national prevalence of adolescent dating violence in Canada. . J. Adolesc. Health 69:(3):495–502
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  47. Feijo M, Fontanari AMV, Boeira LS, Wendt G, Bloniewski T, Costa AB. 2022.. Improving school outcomes for transgender and gender-diverse youth: a rapid review. . Policy Insights Behav. Brain Sci. 9:(1):27–34
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  48. Foster S, Bock JE, Carvallo M, Pollet CL, Stern W. 2022.. Honor-endorsing women and relational aggression: evidence for the presence of feminine aggression norms in southern U.S. women. . Personal. Individ. Differ. 194::111668
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  49. Frey KS, Strong ZH, Onyewuenyi AC. 2017.. Individual and class norms differentially predict proactive and reactive aggression: a functional analysis. . J. Educ. Psychol. 109:(2):178–90
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  50. Gelfand MJ, Raver JL, Nishii L, Leslie LM, Lun J, et al. 2011.. Differences between tight and loose cultures: a 33-nation study. . Science 332:(6033):1100–4
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gelman SA, Taylor MG. 2000.. Gender essentialism in cognitive development. . In Toward a Feminist Developmental Psychology, ed. PH Miller, E Kofsky Scholnick , pp. 169–90. New York:: Routledge
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Gilmore DD. 1990.. Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven, CT:: Yale Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Gini G, Pozzoli T. 2006.. The role of masculinity in children's bullying. . Sex Roles 54:(7):585–88
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  54. Glick P, Berdahl JL, Alonso NM. 2018.. Development and validation of the Masculinity Contest Culture scale. . J. Soc. Issues 74:(3):449–76
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  55. Glick P, Fiske ST, Mladinic A, Saiz JL, Abrams D, et al. 2000.. Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 79:(5):763–75
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  56. Glick P, Sakallı-Uğurlu N, Akbaş G, Orta İM, Ceylan S. 2016.. Why do women endorse honor beliefs? Ambivalent sexism and religiosity as predictors. . Sex Roles 75:(11–12):543–54
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  57. Glick P, Sakallı-Uğurlu N, Ferreira MC, de Souza MA. 2002.. Ambivalent sexism and attitudes toward wife abuse in Turkey and Brazil. . Psychol. Women Q. 26:(4):292–97
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  58. Goff PA, Di Leone BAL, Kahn KB. 2012.. Racism leads to pushups: how racial discrimination threatens subordinate men's masculinity. . J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48:(5):1111–16
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  59. Green R, Fowler K, Palombi A. 2023.. The Black pill pipeline: a process-tracing analysis of the Incel's continuum of violent radicalization. . Sexualities. In press. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634607231169509
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Gruber J, Morgan P. 2005.. In the Company of Men: Male Dominance and Sexual Harassment. Boston, MA:: Northeastern Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Halim ML, Ruble D. 2010.. Gender identity and stereotyping in early and middle childhood. . In Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology, Vol. 1: Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology, ed. JC Chrisler, DR McCreary , pp. 495–525. New York:: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Hammock GS, Richardson DR. 1992.. Predictors of aggressive behavior. . Aggress. Behav. 18:(3):219–29
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  63. Hawley PH. 1999.. The ontogenesis of social dominance: a strategy-based evolutionary perspective. . Dev. Rev. 19:(1):97–132
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  64. Heino E, Ellonen N, Kaltiala R. 2021.. Transgender identity is associated with bullying involvement among Finnish adolescents. . Front. Psychol. 11::612424
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  65. Heppner WL, Kernis MH, Lakey CE, Campbell WK, Goldman BM, et al. 2008.. Mindfulness as a means of reducing aggressive behavior: dispositional and situational evidence. . Aggress. Behav. 34:(5):486–96
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  66. Holekamp KE, Strauss ED. 2016.. Aggression and dominance: an interdisciplinary overview. . Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 12::44–51
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  67. Hum. Rights Campaign Found. 2023.. The epidemic of violence against the transgender and gender non-conforming community in the United States. Rep. , Hum. Rights Campaign Found., Washington, DC:
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Hyde JS, Bigler RS, Joel D, Tate CC, van Anders SM. 2019.. The future of sex and gender in psychology: five challenges to the gender binary. . Am. Psychol. 74:(2):171–93
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  69. Ioverno S, DeLay D, Martin CL, Hanish LD. 2021.. Who engages in gender bullying? The role of homophobic name-calling, gender pressure, and gender conformity. . Educ. Res. 50:(4):215–24
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  70. Ireland JL, Birch P, Kolstee J, Ritchie A. 2017.. Partner abuse and its association with emotional distress: a study exploring LGBTI relationships. . Int. J. Law Psychiatry 54::107–17
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  71. Isai V. 2023.. In Canada, a judge sentences an incel killer as a terrorist. . New York Times, Nov. 28
    [Google Scholar]
  72. James LR, Choi CC, Ko CHE, McNeil PK, Minton MK, et al. 2008.. Organizational and psychological climate: a review of theory and research. . Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 17:(1):5–32
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  73. Jenkins SS, Aube J. 2002.. Gender differences and gender-related constructs in dating aggression. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28:(8):1106–18
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  74. Jin Y, Sun C, Wu J, An J, Li J. 2021.. Precarious manhood and its effects on aggression: the role of cultural script. . J. Interpers. Violence 36:(9–10):NP5521–44
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  75. Kim B, Royle M. 2024.. Domestic violence in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: a synthesis of systematic reviews. . Trauma Violence Abuse 25:(1):476–93
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  76. Kosakowska-Berezecka N, Bosson JK, Jurek P, Best DL, Besta T, et al. 2023.. Gendered self-views across 62 countries: a test of competing models. . Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 14:(7):808–24
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. Kosciw JG, Clark CM, Menard L. 2022.. The 2021 National School Climate Survey: the experiences of LGBTQ+ youth in our nation's schools. Rep. , GLSEN, New York:
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Lansford JE, Skinner AT, Sorbring E, Di Giunta L, Deater-Deckard K, et al. 2012.. Boys’ and girls’ relational and physical aggression in nine countries. . Aggress. Behav. 38:(4):298–308
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  79. Leone RM, Parrott DJ. 2015.. Dormant masculinity: moderating effects of acute alcohol intoxication on the relation between male role norms and antigay aggression. . Psychol. Men Masculinity 16:(2):183–94
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  80. Lightdale JR, Prentice DA. 1994.. Rethinking sex differences in aggression: aggressive behavior in the absence of social roles. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 20:(1):34–44
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  81. Locke BD, Mahalik JR. 2005.. Examining masculinity norms, problem drinking, and athletic involvement as predictors of sexual aggression in college men. . J. Couns. Psychol. 52:(3):279–83
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  82. Marques JM, Abrams D, Paez D, Hogg MA. 2001.. Social categorization, social identification, and rejection of deviant group members. . In Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Group Processes, ed. MA Hogg, RS Tindale , pp. 400–24. Malden, MA:: Blackwell
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Martin JL. 2009.. Formation and stabilization of vertical hierarchies among adolescents: towards a quantitative ethology of dominance among humans. . Soc. Psychol. Q. 72:(3):241–64
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  84. Martin SL, Fisher BS, Stoner MCD, Rizo CF, Wojcik ML. 2022.. Sexual assault of college students: victimization and perpetration prevalence involving cisgender men, cisgender women and gender minorities. . J. Am. College Health 70:(2):404–10
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. Martin-Storey A, Pollitt AM, Baams L. 2021.. Profiles and predictors of dating violence among sexual and gender minority adolescents. . J. Adolesc. Health 68:(6):1155–61
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. McCormick-Huhn K, Warner LR, Settles IH, Shields SA. 2019.. What if psychology took intersectionality seriously? Changing how psychologists think about participants. . Psychol. Women Q. 43:(4):445–56
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  87. McKay T, Lindquist CH, Misra S. 2019.. Understanding (and acting on) 20 years of research on violence and LGBTQ+ communities. . Trauma Violence Abuse 20:(5):665–78
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  88. Menon M, Hannah-Fisher K. 2019.. Felt gender typicality and psychosocial adjustment in Indian early adolescents. . Int. J. Behav. Dev. 43:(4):334–41
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  89. Merk W, Orobio de Castro B, Koops W, Matthys W. 2005.. The distinction between reactive and proactive aggression: utility for theory, diagnosis and treatment?. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. 2:(2):197–220
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  90. Metin-Orta I. 2021.. The relationship between social dominance orientation, gender role orientation and attitudes toward gay men and lesbians in a Turkish sample. . Curr. Psychol. 40:(7):3425–40
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  91. Mulvey KL, Hoffman AJ, Gönültaş S, Hope EC, Cooper SM. 2018.. Understanding experiences with bullying and bias-based bullying: What matters and for whom?. Psychol. Violence 8:(6):702–11
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  92. Navarro R, Larrañaga E, Yubero S. 2016.. Gender identity, gender-typed personality traits and school bullying: victims, bullies and bully-victims. . Child Indic. Res. 9:(1):1–20
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. Nielson MG, Martin CL, Rogers LO, Lindstrom Johnson S, Miller CF, Berendzen H. 2023.. Exploring young men's experience of resistance to masculine norms. . Emerg. Adult. 11:(2):365–79
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  94. Nisbett RE, Cohen D. 1996.. Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Boulder, CO:: Westview Press
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Nuttbrock LA, Hwahng SJ. 2017.. Ethnicity, sex work, and incident HIV/STI among transgender women in New York City: a three-year prospective study. . AIDS Behav. 21::3328–35
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  96. O'Dea CJ, Chalman ST, Castro Bueno AM, Saucier DA. 2018.. Conditional aggression: perceptions of male violence in response to threat and provocation. . Personal. Individ. Differ. 131::132–41
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  97. O'Dea CJ, Jardin E, Saucier DA. 2022.. The Masculinity-based model of Aggressive Retaliation in Society (MARS). . Psychol. Men Masculinity 23:(2):160–72
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  98. Ozaki R, Otis MD. 2017.. Gender equality, patriarchal cultural norms, and perpetration of intimate partner violence: comparison of male university students in Asian and European cultural contexts. . Violence Against Women 23:(9):1076–99
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  99. Palladino BE, Nocentini A, Menesini E. 2016.. Evidence-based intervention against bullying and cyberbullying: evaluation of the NoTrap! program in two independent trials. . Aggress. Behav. 42:(2):194–206
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  100. Patte KA, Gohari MR, Lucibello KM, Bélanger RE, Farrell AH, Leatherdale ST. 2024.. A prospective and repeat cross-sectional study of bullying victimization among adolescents from before COVID-19 to the two school years following the pandemic onset. . J. School Violence 23:(4):48098
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  101. Pauletti RE, Cooper PJ, Perry DG. 2014.. Influences of gender identity on children's maltreatment of gender-nonconforming peers: a person × target analysis of aggression. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 106:(5):843–66
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. Peitzmeier SM, Malik M, Kattari SK, Marrow E, Stephenson R, et al. 2020.. Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. . Am. J. Public Health 110:(9):e1–14
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  103. Perry DG, Pauletti RE, Cooper PJ. 2019.. Gender identity in childhood: a review of the literature. . Int. J. Behav. Dev. 43:(4):289–304
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  104. Piazza JA. 2017.. The determinants of domestic right-wing terrorism in the USA: economic grievance, societal change and political resentment. . Conflict Manag. Peace 34:(1):52–80
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  105. Piquero AR, Jennings WG, Jemison E, Kaukinen C, Knaul FM. 2021.. Domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis. . J. Crim. Justice 74::101806
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  106. Pittman DM, Riedy Rush C, Hurley KB, Minges ML. 2022.. Double jeopardy: intimate partner violence vulnerability among emerging adult women through lenses of race and sexual orientation. . J. Am. College Health 70:(1):265–73
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  107. Powell JA. 2008.. The impact of societal systems on Black male violence. . J. Aggress. Maltreatment Trauma 16:(3):311–29
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  108. Reicher SD, Spears R, Postmes T. 1995.. A social identity model of deindividuation phenomena. . Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 6:(1):161–98
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  109. Reidy DE, Sloan CA, Zeichner A. 2009.. Gender role conformity and aggression: influence of perpetrator and victim conformity on direct physical aggression in women. . Personal. Individ. Differ. 46:(2):231–35
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  110. Reigeluth CS, Addis ME. 2016.. Adolescent boys’ experiences with policing of masculinity: forms, functions, and consequences. . Psychol. Men Masculinity 17:(1):74–83
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  111. Robotham K, Cortina L. 2021.. Promoting respect as a solution to workplace harassment. . Equal. Divers. Incl. Int. J. 40:(4):410–29
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  112. Rodkin PC, Farmer TW, Pearl R, Acker RV. 2006.. They're cool: social status and peer group supports for aggressive boys and girls. . Soc. Dev. 15:(2):175–204
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  113. Rottweiler B, Clemmow C, Gill P. 2024.. A common psychology of male violence? Assessing the effects of misogyny on intentions to engage in violent extremism, interpersonal violence and support for violence against women. . Terror. Political Violence. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2023.2292723
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Rousis GJ, Martel FA, Bosson JK, Swann WB. 2023.. Behind the blackpill: Self-verification and identity fusion predict endorsement of violence against women among self-identified incels. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. In press. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231166481
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Safdar S, Kosakowska-Berezecka N. 2015.. Gender through the lens of culture. . In Psychology of Gender Through the Lens of Culture, ed. S Safdar, N Kosakowska-Berezecka , pp. 1–14. Cham, Switz:.: Springer Int.
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Schmader T. 2023.. Gender inclusion and fit in STEM. . Annu. Rev. Psychol. 74::219–43
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  117. Schmader T, Block K. 2015.. Engendering identity: toward a clearer conceptualization of gender as a social identity. . Sex Roles 73:(11–12):474–80
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  118. Sidanius J, Pratto F. 1999.. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. Cambridge, UK:: Cambridge Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Slavich GM. 2020.. Social safety theory: a biologically based evolutionary perspective on life stress, health, and behavior. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 16::265–95
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  120. Spence JT. 1993.. Gender-related traits and gender ideology: evidence for a multifactorial theory. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 64:(4):624–35
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  121. Spence JT, Helmreich RL. 1978.. Masculinity and Femininity: Their Psychological Dimensions, Correlates, and Antecedents. Austin: Univ. Tex. Press:
     [Google Scholar]
  122. Stanaland A, Gaither S. 2021.. “ Be a man”: the role of social pressure in eliciting men's aggressive cognition. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 47:(11):1596–611
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  123. Stanaland A, Gaither S, Gassman-Pines A. 2023.. When is masculinity “fragile”? An expectancy-discrepancy-threat model of masculine identity. . Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 27:(4):359–77
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  124. Stephan WG, Ybarra O, Morrison KR. 2016.. Intergroup threat theory. . In Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, ed. TD Nelson , pp. 255–78. London:: Psychol. Press. , 2nd ed..
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Sterzing PR, Gartner RE, Goldbach JT, McGeough BL, Ratliff GA, Johnson KC. 2019.. Polyvictimization prevalence rates for sexual and gender minority adolescents: breaking down the silos of victimization research. . Psychol. Violence 9:(4):419–30
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  126. Stewart AJ, McDermott C. 2004.. Gender in psychology. . Annu. Rev. Psychol. 55::519–44
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  127. Stubbs-Richardson M, Sinclair HC, Goldberg RM, Ellithorpe CN, Amadi SC. 2018.. Reaching out versus lashing out: examining gender differences in experiences with and responses to bullying in high school. . Am. J. Crim. Justice 43:(1):39–66
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  128. Tager D, Good GE, Brammer S. 2010.. “ Walking over ’em”: an exploration of relations between emotion dysregulation, masculine norms, and intimate partner abuse in a clinical sample of men. . Psychol. Men Masculinity 11:(3):233–39
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  129. Tajfel H, Turner JC. 1986.. The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. . In Psychology of Intergroup Relations, ed. S Worchel, LW Austin , pp. 7–24. Chicago, IL:: Nelson-Hall
     [Google Scholar]
  130. Tam MJ, Jewell JA, Brown CS. 2019.. Gender-based harassment in early adolescence: group and individual predictors of perpetration. . J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 62::231–38
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  131. Thomas A, Hammond WP, Kohn-Wood LP. 2015.. Chill, be cool man: African American men, identity, coping, and aggressive ideation. . Cult. Divers. Ethn. Minor. 21:(3):369–79
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  132. UN Off. Drugs Crime (UNODC). 2019.. Global study on homicide. Rep. , UNODC, Vienna, Austria:
     [Google Scholar]
  133. Uskul AK, Cross SE, Günsoy C. 2023.. The role of honour in interpersonal, intrapersonal, and intergroup processes. . Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 17:(1):e12719
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  134. Utley JW, Sinclair HC, Nelson S, Ellithorpe C, Stubbs-Richardson M. 2022.. Behavioral and psychological consequences of social identity-based aggressive victimization in high school youth. . Self Identity 21:(1):61–85
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  135. Valved T, Kosakowska-Berezecka N, Besta T, Martiny SE. 2021.. Gender belief systems through the lens of culture: differences in precarious manhood beliefs and reactions to masculinity threat in Poland and Norway. . Psychol. Men Masculinity 22:(2):265–76
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  136. Vandello JA, Bosson JK, Cohen D, Burnaford RM, Weaver JR. 2008.. Precarious manhood. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 95:(6):1325–39
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  137. Vandello JA, Cohen D. 2003.. Male honor and female fidelity: implicit cultural scripts that perpetuate domestic violence. . J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 84:(5):997–1010
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  138. Vandello JA, Ransom S, Hettinger VE, Askew K. 2009.. Men's misperceptions about the acceptability and attractiveness of aggression. . J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 45:(6):1209–19
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  139. Vandello JA, Upton RA, Wilkerson M, Kubicki RJ, Kosakowska-Berezecka N. 2023.. Cultural beliefs about manhood predict anti-LGBTQ+attitudes and policies. . Sex Roles 88::442–58
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  140. Vincent W, Parrott DJ, Peterson JL. 2011.. Effects of traditional gender role norms and religious fundamentalism on self-identified heterosexual men's attitudes, anger, and aggression toward gay men and lesbians. . Psychol. Men Masculinity 12:(4):383–400
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  141. Waite S. 2021.. Should I stay or should I go? Employment discrimination and workplace harassment against transgender and other minority employees in Canada's Federal Public Service. . J. Homosex. 68:(11):1833–59
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  142. Wang J, Iannotti RJ, Nansel TR. 2009.. School bullying among US adolescents: physical, verbal, relational and cyber. . J. Adolesc. Health 45:(4):368–75
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  143. Weaver JR, Vandello JA, Bosson JK, Burnaford RM. 2010.. The proof is in the punch: gender differences in perceptions of action and aggression as components of manhood. . Sex Roles 62::241–51
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  144. Weisbuch M, Beal D, O'Neal EC. 1999.. How masculine ought I be? Men's masculinity and aggression. . Sex Roles 40:(7):583–92
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  145. Westbrook L. 2023.. The matrix of violence: intersectionality and necropolitics in the murder of transgender people in the United States, 1990–2019. . Gend. Soc. 37:(3):413–46
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  146. Williams JE, Best DL. 1990.. Sex and Psyche: Gender and Self Viewed Cross-Culturally. London:: Sage
     [Google Scholar]
  147. Wittlin NM, Kuper LE, Olson KR. 2023.. Mental health of transgender and gender diverse youth. . Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 19::207–32
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  148. Wood W, Eagly AH. 2002.. A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: implications for the origins of sex differences. . Psychol. Bull. 128:(5):699–727
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  149. Wood W, Eagly AH. 2015.. Two traditions of research on gender identity. . Sex Roles 73:(11):461–73
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  150. Ybarra ML, Goodman KL, Saewyc E, Scheer JR, Stroem IF. 2022.. Youth characteristics associated with sexual violence perpetration among transgender boys and girls, cisgender boys and girls, and nonbinary youth. . JAMA Netw. Open 5:(6):e2215863
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456
Loading
Gender Identity and Aggression
Annual Review of Psychology 76, 635 (2025); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error