1932

Abstract

Vaccines prevent millions of deaths, and yet millions of people die each year from vaccine-preventable diseases. The primary reason for these deaths is that a significant fraction of the population chooses not to vaccinate. Why don't people vaccinate, and what can be done to increase vaccination rates besides providing free and easy access to vaccines? This review presents a conceptual framework, motivated by economic theory, of which factors shift the demand for vaccines. Next, it critically examines the literature on these demand shifters and interventions that target these demand shifters. The review concludes with offering directions for future research and lessons for public health decision making.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-052620-093049
2022-04-05
2024-10-13
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/43/1/annurev-publhealth-052620-093049.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-052620-093049&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. 
    Abdullahi LH, Kagina BM, Ndze VN, Hussey GD, Wiysonge CS. 2020. Improving vaccination uptake among adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2020:1CD011895
    [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. 
    Alsan M, Garrick O, Graziani G. 2019. Does diversity matter for health? Experimental evidence from Oakland. Am. Econ. Rev. 109:124071–111
    [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. 
    Anne-Laure C-B, Jocelyn R, Nathanaël L, De-Lambal X, Fabrice C, Michel S 2014. Predictors of IV behaviors during and after the 2009 influenza pandemic in France. Vaccine 32:172007–15
    [Google Scholar]
  4. 4. 
    Beattie A, Palmer K, Rees E, Riddell Z, Roberts C, Jordan R. 2013. Factors affecting the acceptance of pandemic influenza A H1N1 vaccine amongst essential service providers: a cross sectional study. Vaccines 1:117–33
    [Google Scholar]
  5. 5. 
    Bodine-Baron E, Nowak S, Varadavas R, Sood N. 2013. Conforming and non-conforming peer effects in vaccination decisions NBER Work. Pap. w19528. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w19528/w19528.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  6. 6. 
    Boggavarapu S, Sullivan KM, Schamel JT, Frew PM. 2014. Factors associated with seasonal influenza immunization among church-going older African Americans. Vaccine 32:527085–90
    [Google Scholar]
  7. 7. 
    Börjesson M, Enander A. 2014. Perceptions and sociodemographic factors influencing vaccination uptake and precautionary behaviours in response to the A/H1N1 influenza in Sweden. Scand. J. Public Health 42:2215–22
    [Google Scholar]
  8. 8. 
    Brewer NT, Chapman GB, Rothman AJ, Leask J, Kempe A. 2017. Increasing vaccination: putting psychological science into action. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 18:3149–207
    [Google Scholar]
  9. 9. 
    Caballero P, Tuells J, Duro-Torrijos JL, Nolasco A. 2013. Acceptability of pandemic A(H1N1) influenza vaccination by Essential Community Workers in 2010 Alicante (Spain), perceived seriousness and sources of information. Prev. Med. 57:5725–28
    [Google Scholar]
  10. 10. 
    Chamberlain AT, Seib K, Ault KA, Rosenberg ES, Frew PM et al. 2015. Improving influenza and Tdap vaccination during pregnancy: a cluster-randomized trial of a multi-component antenatal vaccine promotion package in late influenza season. Vaccine 33:303571–79
    [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. 
    Chuang Y-C, Huang Y-L, Tseng K-C, Yen C-H, Yang L-H 2015. Social capital and health-protective behavior intentions in an influenza pandemic. PLOS ONE 10:4e0122970
    [Google Scholar]
  12. 12. 
    Datar A, Mukherji A, Sood N. 2007. Health infrastructure & immunization coverage in rural India. Indian J. Med. Res. 125:131–42
    [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. 
    de Perio MA, Wiegand DM, Evans SM. 2012. Low influenza vaccination rates among child care workers in the United States: assessing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. J. Community Health 37:2272–81
    [Google Scholar]
  14. 14. 
    DeStefano F, Bodenstab HM, Offit PA. 2019. Principal controversies in vaccine safety in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 69:4726–31
    [Google Scholar]
  15. 15. 
    Diks ME, Hiligsmann M, van der Putten IM. 2021. Vaccine preferences driving vaccine-decision making of different target groups: a systematic review of choice-based experiments. BMC Infect. Dis. 21:879
    [Google Scholar]
  16. 16. 
    Dixon G, Clarke C. 2013. The effect of falsely balanced reporting of the autism–vaccine controversy on vaccine safety perceptions and behavioral intentions. Health Educ. Res. 28:2352–59
    [Google Scholar]
  17. 17. 
    Eastwood K, Durrheim DN, Jones A, Butler M 2010. Acceptance of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza vaccination by the Australian public. Med. J. Aust. 192:133–36
    [Google Scholar]
  18. 18. 
    Ehreth J. 2003. The global value of vaccination. Vaccine 21:7596–600
    [Google Scholar]
  19. 19. 
    FDA (Food Drug Adm.) 2020. Emergency use authorization for vaccines explained. FDA. https://www.fda.gov/vaccines-blood-biologics/vaccines/emergency-use-authorization-vaccines-explained
    [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. 
    Frew PM, Kriss JL, Chamberlain AT, Malik F, Chung Y et al. 2016. A randomized trial of maternal influenza immunization decision-making: a test of persuasive messaging models. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 12:81989–96
    [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. 
    Frew PM, Painter JE, Hixson B, Kulb C, Moore K et al. 2012. Factors mediating seasonal and influenza A (H1N1) vaccine acceptance among ethnically diverse populations in the urban south. Vaccine 30:284200–8
    [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. 
    Frew PM, Saint-Victor DS, Owens LE, Omer SB. 2014. Socioecological and message framing factors influencing maternal influenza immunization among minority women. Vaccine 32:151736–44
    [Google Scholar]
  23. 23. 
    Gargano LM, Painter JE, Sales JM, Morfaw C, Jones LM et al. 2011. Correlates of 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza vaccine acceptance among middle and high school teachers in rural Georgia. J. Sch. Health 81:6297–303
    [Google Scholar]
  24. 24. 
    Gottvall M, Tydén T, Höglund AT, Larsson M. 2010. Knowledge of human papillomavirus among high school students can be increased by an educational intervention. Int. J. STD AIDS 21:8558–62
    [Google Scholar]
  25. 25. 
    Ho HJ, Tan Y-R, Cook AR, Koh G, Tham TY et al. 2019. Increasing influenza and pneumococcal vaccination uptake in seniors using point-of-care informational interventions in primary care in Singapore: a pragmatic, cluster-randomized crossover trial. Am. J. Public Health 109:121776–83
    [Google Scholar]
  26. 26. 
    Huang J-H, Miao Y-Y, Kuo P-C. 2012. Pandemic influenza H1N1 vaccination intention: psychosocial determinants and implications from a national survey, Taiwan. Eur. J. Public Health 22:6796–801
    [Google Scholar]
  27. 27. 
    Ibuka Y, Li M, Vietri J, Chapman GB, Galvani AP. 2014. Free-riding behavior in vaccination decisions: an experimental study. PLOS ONE 9:1e87164
    [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. 
    Kaufman J, Ryan R, Walsh L, Horey D, Leask J et al. 2018. Face-to-face interventions for informing or educating parents about early childhood vaccination. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 5:5CD010038
    [Google Scholar]
  29. 29. 
    Kimura AC, Nguyen CN, Higa JI, Hurwitz EL, Vugia DJ. 2007. The effectiveness of vaccine day and educational interventions on influenza vaccine coverage among health care workers at long-term care facilities. Am. J. Public Health 97:4684–90
    [Google Scholar]
  30. 30. 
    Kiviniemi MT, Ram PK, Kozlowski LT, Smith KM. 2011. Perceptions of and willingness to engage in public health precautions to prevent 2009 H1N1 influenza transmission. BMC Public Health 11:152
    [Google Scholar]
  31. 31. 
    Kravos A, Kračun L, Kravos K, Iljaž R 2015. The impact of patient's socio-demographic characteristics, comorbidities and attitudes on flu vaccination uptake in family practice settings. Zdr. Varst. 54:3204–11
    [Google Scholar]
  32. 32. 
    Kumar S, Quinn SC, Kim KH, Musa D, Hilyard KM, Freimuth VS. 2012. The social ecological model as a framework for determinants of 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine uptake in the United States. Health Educ Behav 39:2229–43
    [Google Scholar]
  33. 33. 
    Larson HJ, Clarke RM, Jarrett C, Eckersberger E, Levine Z et al. 2018. Measuring trust in vaccination: a systematic review. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 14:71599–609
    [Google Scholar]
  34. 34. 
    Lau JTF, Au DWH, Tsui HY, Choi KC. 2012. Prevalence and determinants of influenza vaccination in the Hong Kong Chinese adult population. Am. J. Infect. Control. 40:7e225–27
    [Google Scholar]
  35. 35. 
    Lau JTF, Yeung NCY, Choi KC, Cheng MYM, Tsui HY, Griffiths S. 2010. Factors in association with acceptability of A/H1N1 vaccination during the influenza A/H1N1 pandemic phase in the Hong Kong general population. Vaccine 28:294632–37
    [Google Scholar]
  36. 36. 
    Leung KC, Mui C, Chiu WY, Ng YY, Chen MHY et al. 2017. Impact of patient education on influenza vaccine uptake among community-dwelling elderly: a randomized controlled trial. Health Educ. Res. 32:5455–64
    [Google Scholar]
  37. 37. 
    Li M, Chapman GB, Ibuka Y, Meyers LA, Galvani A. 2012. Who got vaccinated against H1N1 pandemic influenza? A longitudinal study in four U.S. cities. Psychol. Health 27:1101–15
    [Google Scholar]
  38. 38. 
    Lieu TA, Ray GT, Klein NP, Chung C, Kulldorff M 2015. Geographic clusters in underimmunization and vaccine refusal. Pediatrics 135:2280–89
    [Google Scholar]
  39. 39. 
    Lowes S, Montero E. 2021. The legacy of colonial medicine in Central Africa. Am. Econ. Rev. 111:41284–314
    [Google Scholar]
  40. 40. 
    Maier K, Berkman J, Chatkoff D. 2012. Novel virus, atypical risk group: understanding young adults in college as an under-protected population during H1N1 2009. PLOS Curr. 4: https://doi.org/10.1371/currents.flu.ce9ad5d14c88ccf5877b9cf289a41eaf
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  41. 41. 
    Matsui D, Shigeta M, Ozasa K, Kuriyama N, Watanabe I, Watanabe Y. 2011. Factors associated with influenza vaccination status of residents of a rural community in Japan. BMC Public Health 11:149
    [Google Scholar]
  42. 42. 
    Mesch GS, Schwirian KP. 2015. Social and political determinants of vaccine hesitancy: lessons learned from the H1N1 pandemic of 2009–2010. Am. J. Infect. Control 43:111161–65
    [Google Scholar]
  43. 43. 
    Moehring A, Collis A, Garimella K, Rahimian MA, Aral S, Eckles D 2021. Surfacing norms to increase vaccine acceptance SSRN Work. Pap. 3782082. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3782082
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  44. 44. 
    Naing C, Tan RYP, Soon WC, Parakh J, Sanggi SS 2012. Preventive behaviours towards influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and factors associated with the intention to take influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccination. J. Infect. Public Health 5:6412–19
    [Google Scholar]
  45. 45. 
    Nasserie T, Bendavid E. 2021. Systematic identification and replication of factors associated with human papillomavirus vaccine initiation among adolescents in the United States using an environment-wide association study approach. Sex. Transm. Infect. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2021-054976
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  46. 46. 
    Newcombe J, Kaur R, Wood N, Seale H, Palasanthiran P, Snelling T 2014. Prevalence and determinants of influenza vaccine coverage at tertiary pediatric hospitals. Vaccine 32:486364–68
    [Google Scholar]
  47. 47. 
    Nyhan B, Reifler J. 2015. Does correcting myths about the flu vaccine work? An experimental evaluation of the effects of corrective information. Vaccine 33:3459–64
    [Google Scholar]
  48. 48. 
    Nyhan B, Reifler J, Richey S. 2012. The role of social networks in influenza vaccine attitudes and intentions among college students in the Southeastern United States. J. Adolesc. Health 51:3302–4
    [Google Scholar]
  49. 49. 
    Nyhan B, Reifler J, Richey S, Freed GL 2014. Effective messages in vaccine promotion: a randomized trial. Pediatrics 133:4e835–42
    [Google Scholar]
  50. 50. 
    Oster E. 2018. Does disease cause vaccination? Disease outbreaks and vaccination response. J. Health Econ. 57:90–101
    [Google Scholar]
  51. 51. 
    Peng Y, Xu Y, Zhu M, Yu H, Nie S, Yan W 2013. Chinese urban-rural disparity in pandemic (H1N1) 2009 vaccination coverage rate and associated determinants: a cross-sectional telephone survey. Public Health 127:10930–37
    [Google Scholar]
  52. 52. 
    Philipson T. 1996. Private vaccination and public health: an empirical examination for U.S. measles. J. Hum. Resourc. 31:3611–30
    [Google Scholar]
  53. 53. 
    Philipson T. 2000. Chapter 33 Economic epidemiology and infectious diseases. Handbook of Health Economics, Vol. 1B, ed. AJ Culyer, JP Newhouse 1761–99 Amsterdam: Elsevier
    [Google Scholar]
  54. 54. 
    Pluviano S, Watt C, Della Sala S. 2017. Misinformation lingers in memory: failure of three pro-vaccination strategies. PLOS ONE 12:7e0181640
    [Google Scholar]
  55. 55. 
    Podlesek A, Roškar S, Komidar L 2011. Some factors affecting the decision on non-mandatory vaccination in an influenza pandemic: comparison of pandemic (H1N1) and seasonal influenza vaccination. Slov. J. Public Health 50:4227–38
    [Google Scholar]
  56. 56. 
    Porter CK, Fitamaurice G, Tribble DR, Armstrong AW, Mostafa M, Riddle MS 2013. Willingness to receive a hypothetical avian influenza vaccine among US military personnel in mid-deployment. Hum. Vaccine Immunother. 9:122613–17
    [Google Scholar]
  57. 57. 
    Prati G, Pietrantoni L, Zani B 2011. Compliance with recommendations for pandemic influenza H1N1 2009: the role of trust and personal beliefs. Health Educ. Res. 26:5761–69
    [Google Scholar]
  58. 58. 
    Quinn SC, Kumar S, Freimuth VS, Kidwell K, Musa D. 2009. Public willingness to take a vaccine or drug under Emergency Use Authorization during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. Biosecur. Bioterr. 7:3275–90
    [Google Scholar]
  59. 59. 
    Rao N, Möbius MM, Rosenblat T. 2007. Social networks and vaccination decisions. Work. Pap. 07–12 Fed. Reserv. Bank Boston Boston: https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/research-department-working-paper/2007/social-networks-and-vaccination-decisions.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. 
    Redelings MD, Piron J, Smith LV, Chan A, Heinzerling J et al. 2012. Knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about seasonal influenza and H1N1 vaccinations in a low-income, public health clinic population. Vaccine 30:2454–58
    [Google Scholar]
  61. 61. 
    Reiter PL, McRee A-L, Gottlieb SL, Markowitz LE, Brewer NT. 2011. Uptake of 2009 H1N1 vaccine among adolescent females. Hum. Vaccine 7:2191–96
    [Google Scholar]
  62. 62. 
    Renner B, Reuter T. 2012. Predicting vaccination using numerical and affective risk perceptions: the case of A/H1N1 influenza. Vaccine 30:497019–26
    [Google Scholar]
  63. 63. 
    Roca B, Herrero E, Resino E, Torres V, Penades M, Andreu C 2012. Impact of education program on influenza vaccination rates in Spain. Am. J. Manag. Care 18:12e446–52
    [Google Scholar]
  64. 64. 
    Romley J, Goutam P, Sood N. 2016. National survey indicates that individual vaccination decisions respond positively to community vaccination rates. PLOS ONE 11:11e0166858
    [Google Scholar]
  65. 65. 
    Rönnerstrand B. 2013. Social capital and immunisation against the 2009 A(H1N1) pandemic in Sweden. Scand. J. Public Health 41:8853–59
    [Google Scholar]
  66. 66. 
    Rudisill C. 2013. How do we handle new health risks? Risk perception, optimism, and behaviors regarding the H1N1 virus. J. Risk Res. 16:8959–80
    [Google Scholar]
  67. 67. 
    Santibanez TA, Mootrey GT, Euler GL, Janssen AP. 2010. Behavior and beliefs about influenza vaccine among adults aged 50–64 years. Am. J. Health Behav. 34:177–89
    [Google Scholar]
  68. 68. 
    Schaller J, Schulkind L, Shapiro T. 2019. Disease outbreaks, healthcare utilization, and on-time immunization in the first year of life. J. Health Econ. 67:102212
    [Google Scholar]
  69. 69. 
    Scherer LD, Shaffer VA, Patel N, Zikmund-Fisher BJ 2016. Can the vaccine adverse event reporting system be used to increase vaccine acceptance and trust?. Vaccine 34:212424–29
    [Google Scholar]
  70. 70. 
    Scott VP, Opel DJ, Reifler J, Rikin S, Pethe K et al. 2019. Office-based educational handout for influenza vaccination : a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics 144:2e20182580
    [Google Scholar]
  71. 71. 
    Seale H, Heywood AE, McLaws M-L, Ward KF, Lowbridge CP et al. 2010. Why do I need it? I am not at risk! Public perceptions towards the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 vaccine. BMC Infect. Dis. 10:99
    [Google Scholar]
  72. 72. 
    Setbon M, Raude J. 2010. Factors in vaccination intention against the pandemic influenza A/H1N1. Eur. J. Public Health 20:5490–94
    [Google Scholar]
  73. 73. 
    Shahrabani S, Benzion U. 2010. Workplace vaccination and other factors impacting influenza vaccination decision among employees in Israel. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 7:3853–69
    [Google Scholar]
  74. 74. 
    Shermohammed M, Goren A, Lanyado A, Yesharim R, Wolk DM et al. 2021. Informing patients that they are at high risk for serious complications of viral infection increases vaccination rates. medRxiv 21252015. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.02.20.21252015
    [Crossref]
  75. 75. 
    Slaunwhite JM, Smith SM, Fleming MT, Strang R, Lockhart C. 2009. Increasing vaccination rates among health care workers using unit “champions” as a motivator. Can. J. Infect. Control 24:3159–64
    [Google Scholar]
  76. 76. 
    SteelFisher GK, Blendon RJ, Kang M, Ward JRM, Kahn EB et al. 2015. Adoption of preventive behaviors in response to the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic: a multiethnic perspective. Influenza Other Respir. Viruses 9:3131–42
    [Google Scholar]
  77. 77. 
    Straits-Tröster KA, Kahwati LC, Kinsinger LS, Orelien J, Burdick MB, Yevich SJ. 2006. Racial/ethnic differences in influenza vaccination in the Veterans Affairs Healthcare System. Am. J. Prev. Med. 31:5375–82
    [Google Scholar]
  78. 78. 
    Stuck AE, Moser A, Morf U, Wirz U, Wyser J et al. 2015. Effect of health risk assessment and counselling on health behaviour and survival in older people: a pragmatic randomised trial. PLOS Med 12:10e1001889
    [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. 
    van der Weerd W, Timmermans DR, Beaujean DJ, Oudhoff J, van Steenbergen JE. 2011. Monitoring the level of government trust, risk perception and intention of the general public to adopt protective measures during the influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in The Netherlands. BMC Public Health 11:575
    [Google Scholar]
  80. 80. 
    Vos T, Lim SS, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, Abbasi M et al. 2020. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396:102581204–22
    [Google Scholar]
  81. 81. 
    Wiese-Posselt M, Leitmeyer K, Hamouda O, Bocter N, Zöllner I et al. 2006. Influenza vaccination coverage in adults belonging to defined target groups, Germany, 2003/2004. Vaccine 24:142560–66
    [Google Scholar]
  82. 82. 
    Williams SE, Rothman RL, Offit PA, Schaffner W, Sullivan M, Edwards KM 2013. A randomized trial to increase acceptance of childhood vaccines by vaccine-hesitant parents: a pilot study. Acad. Pediatr. 13:5475–80
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-052620-093049
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-052620-093049
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error