1932

Abstract

Across Latin America, societies are confronting the rise of novel orders in which state officials and political authorities share power with criminal organizations. Criminal governance (i.e., the creation of rules regulating behavior by criminal entities often with the collaboration of state actors), as these arrangements have come to be known, poses significant challenges for democracy and the rule of law and often threatens peoples' enjoyment of fundamental rights. This article reviews the literature on state-criminal relations in Latin America by critically discussing conceptual and methodological issues. In so doing, it looks at three extant literatures that have contributed to enhancing our grasp of alternative forms of governance: studies on violence, works on stateness and the rule of law, and the literature on criminal governance. This article posits that those literatures have done a commendable job in describing and conceptualizing emerging forms of governance that deviate from traditional views. However, we also argue that these bodies of work operate in silos with little integration and display methodological biases and theoretical blind spots that weaken their overall analytical power. We also point out that much more work is needed to assess these new orders' consequences for existing political regimes and state institutions. In the conclusion, we propose concrete steps to strengthen research and foster a more integrated agenda and suggest future investigative avenues.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-124931
2022-07-29
2024-12-10
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/48/1/annurev-soc-030420-124931.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-124931&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Albarracin J. 2018. Criminalized electoral politics in Brazilian urban peripheries. Crime Law Soc. Change 69:4553–75
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Andreas P 2013. Border Games: Policing the US–Mexico Divide Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Andreas P 2019. Drugs and war: What is the relationship?. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 22:1–23
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Arias ED. 2006. Drugs and Democracy in Rio de Janeiro: Trafficking, Social Networks and Public Security Chapel Hill: Univ. N. C. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Arias ED. 2017. Criminal Enterprises and Governance in Latin America and the Caribbean Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Arias ED, Barnes N. 2017. Crime and plural orders in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. Curr. Sociol. 65:3448–65
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Arias ED, Goldstein D, eds. 2010. Violent Democracies in Latin America Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Arjona A. 2021. War-to-peace transitions and the behavioral legacies of civil war: a plea for looking beyond violence. Int. J. Drug Policy 89:103154
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Arjona A, Kasfir N, Mampilly Z, eds. 2015. Rebel Governance in Civil War Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Asmann P, Jones K. 2021. InSight Crime's 2020 homicide round-up Rep. InSight Crime Washington, DC: https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/2020-homicide-round-up/
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Asmann P, O'Reilly E. 2020. InSight Crime's 2019 homicide round-up Rep. InSight Crime Washington, DC: https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/insight-crime-2019-homicide-round-up/
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Auyero J. 2007. Routine Politics and Violence in Argentina: The Grey Zone of State Power Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Auyero J, Berti MF. 2015. In Harm's Way. The Dynamics of Urban Violence Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Auyero J, Bourgois P, Scheper-Hughes N. 2015. Violence and the Urban Margins Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Auyero J, Sobering K. 2019. The Ambivalent State: Police Criminal Collusion at the Urban Margins Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Ayoob M. 1991. The security problematic of the third world. World Politics 43:1275–83
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Balcells L, Justino P. 2014. Bridging micro and macro approaches on civil wars and political violence issues, challenges, and the way forward. J. Confl. Resolut. 58:81343–59
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Barnes N. 2017. Criminal politics: an integrated approach to the study of organized crime, politics and violence. Perspect. Politics 15:4967–87
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bates R. 2008. When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late Century Africa Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Beckert J, Dewey M, eds. 2018. The Architecture of Illegal Markets: Toward an Economic Sociology of Illegality in the Economy Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Bergman M. 2018. More Money, More Crime: Prosperity and Rising Crime in Latin America Oxford UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Biondi K. 2016. Sharing this Walk: An Ethnography of Prison Life and the PCC in Brazil Chapel Hill: Univ. N. C. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Brinks D. 2007. The Judicial Response to Police Killings in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Brinks D, Botero S 2014. Inequality and the rule of law: ineffective rights in Latin American democracies. Reflections on Uneven Democracies: The Legacy of Guillermo O'Donnell D Brinks, M Leiras, S Mainwaring 214–39 Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Brinks D, Levitsky S, Murillo MV. 2019. Understanding Institutional Weakness: Elements in Politics and Society in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Bruneau T, Dammert L, Skinner E, eds. 2011. Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America Austin: Univ. Texas Press
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Centeno MA. 2002. Blood and Debt: War and the Nation State in Latin America University Park: Pa. State Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Cheng C. 2018. Extralegal Groups in Post-Conflict Liberia: How Trade Makes the State Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Chevigny P 2003. The control of police misconduct in the Americas. Crime and Violence in Latin America: Citizen Security, Democracy, and the State H Frühling, J Tulchin, H Golding 45–68 Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Cent.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Córdova A. 2019. Living in gang-controlled neighborhoods: impacts on electoral and non-electoral participation in El Salvador. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 54:1201–21
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Corradi J, Weiss-Fagan P, Garretón MA, eds. 1992. Fear at the Edge: State Terror and Resistance in Latin America Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Cruz JM. 2011. Criminal violence and democratization in Central America: the survival of the violent state. Lat. Am. Politics Soc. 53:41–33
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Cruz JM. 2012. The transformation of street gangs in Central America. Harv. Rev. Lat. Am. XI:231–33
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Cruz JM, Durán-Martínez A. 2016. Hiding violence to deal with the state: criminal pacts in El Salvador and Medellin. J. Peace Res. 53:2197–210
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Cubides F. 1999. Los paramilitares y su estrategia. Reconocer la Guerra para Construir la Paz M Deas, MV Llorente 151–200 Bogotá:: Ed. Uniandes, Grupo Ed. Norma
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Dammert L. 2014. La relación entre confianza e inseguridad: el caso de Chile. Criminalidad 56:1189–207
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Dargent E, Feldmann AE, Luna JP. 2017. Greater state capacity, lesser stateness: lessons from the Peruvian commodity boom. Politics Soc. 45:13–44
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Davis D. 2006. The age of insecurity: violence and social disorder in the new Latin America. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 41:1178–91
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Davis D. 2009. Non-state armed actors, new imagined communities, and shifting patterns of sovereignty and insecurity in the modern world. Contemp. Secur. Policy 30:2221–45
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Davis D. 2010. Irregular armed forces, shifting patterns of commitment, and fragmented sovereignty in the developing world. Theory Soc 39:3397–413
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Davis D. 2012. Policing and police transition: from post-authoritarianism to populism and neoliberalism. Violence, Coercion, and State-Making in Twentieth-Century Mexico: The Other Half of the Centaur W Pansters 68–90 Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Davis D. 2018. The routinization of violence in Latin America: ethnographic revelations. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 53:1211–16
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Dewey M. 2016. El Orden Clandestino: Política, Fuerzas de Seguridad y Mercados Ilegales en la Argentina Buenos Aires: Katz Ed.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Dewey M, Míguez DP, Saín MF. 2017. The strength of collusion: a conceptual framework to interpret hybrid social orders. Curr. Sociol. 65:3395–410
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Duncan G. 2006. Los Señores de La Guerra: De Paramilitares, Mafiosos y Autodefensas en Colombia Bogotá: Planeta
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Duncan G. 2015. Más Plata que Plomo: El Poder Político del Narcotráfico en Colombia y México Bogotá: Debate
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Duncan G. 2022. Beyond Plata y Plomo Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Durán-Martínez A. 2018. The Politics of Drug Violence: Criminals, Cops and Politicians in Colombia and Mexico Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Eaton K. 2010. Subnational economic nationalism? The contradictory effects of decentralization in Peru. Third World Q 31:71205–22
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Eaton K. 2012. The state in Latin America: challenges, challengers, responses and deficits. Rev. Ciencia Política 32:3643–57
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Evans P, Rueschemeyer D, Skocpol T, eds. 1985. Bringing the State Back In Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Expansión. 2020. Uruguay: homicidios intencionales 2020 Rep. Datosmacro N.p. https://datosmacro.expansion.com/demografia/homicidios/uruguay
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Felbab-Brown V, Trinkunas H, Shadi H. 2018. Militants, Criminals, and Warlords: The Challenge of Local Governance in an Age of Disorder Washington, DC: Brookings Inst.
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Feldmann AE. 2018. Revolutionary terror in the Colombian civil war. Stud. Confl. Terror 41:10825–46
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Feldmann AE 2019. Examining the root sources of violence in Haiti: tracing the relation between structure and contingency. The Politics of Violence in Latin America P Policzer 19–52 Calgary, Can: Univ. Calgary Press
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Feldmann AE, Perälä M. 2004. Reassessing the causes of non-governmental terrorism in Latin America. Lat. Am. Politics Soc. 46:2101–31
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Feltran G. 2008. O legítimo em disputa: as fronteiras do ‘mundo do crime’ nas periferias de São Paulo. Dilemas 1:193–126
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Feltran G. 2018. Irmãos: Uma História do PCC São Paulo: Companhia das Letras
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Frühling H. 2001. La Reforma Policial y el Proceso de Democratización en América Latina: Crimen y Violencia en América Latina Santiago: CED
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Gambetta D. 1996. The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  61. García Pinzón V, Mantilla J. 2020. Contested borders: organized crime, governance, and bordering practices in Colombia-Venezuela borderlands. Trends Organ. Crime 24:265–81
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Giraudy A, Luna JP 2016. Unpacking the state's uneven territorial reach: evidence from Latin America. States in the Developing World MA Centeno, A Kolhi, D Yashar 85–108 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Gómez E 2012. Mexico's challenges: lessons in the war against organized crime (2007–2011). ReVista Dec. 28. https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/mexicos-challenges/
    [Google Scholar]
  64. González YM. 2017. What citizens can see of the state: police and the construction of democratic citizenship in Latin America. Theor. Criminol. 21:4494–511
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Gordon J. 2020. The legitimation of extrajudicial violence in an urban community. Soc. Forces 98:31174–95
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Gurr TR. 1994. Peoples against states: ethnopolitical conflict and the changing world system. Int. Stud. Q. 38:3347–77
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Gutiérrez-Sanin F. 2019. Clientelistic Warfare: Paramilitaries and the State in Colombia (19822007) Oxford, UK: Peter Lang
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Guzmán JA. 2020. Juan Pablo Luna: “Se desmanteló la idea de que Chile tenía una gran capacidad estatal de establecer orden. .” CIPER Dec. 3. https://www.ciperchile.cl/2020/03/12/juan-pablo-luna-se-desmantelo-la-idea-de-que-chile-tenia-una-gran-capacidad-estatal-de-establecer-orden/
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Hilgers T, Macdonald L. 2017. Violence in Latin America and the Caribbean: Subnational Structures, Institutions, and Clientelistic Networks Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Hobsbawm E. 2000. Bandits New York: New Press
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Holsti K. 1996. The State, War and the State of War Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Huggins M. 1991. Vigilantism and the State in Modern Latin America: Essays on Extralegal Violence Westport, CT: Praeger
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Idler A. 2019. Borderland Battles: Violence, Crime, and Governance at the Edges of Colombia's War Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Imbusch P, Misse M, Carrión F. 2011. Violence research in Latin America and the Caribbean: a literature review. Int. J. Confl. Violence 5:187–154
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Inkster N, Comolli V. 2012. Drugs, Insecurity and Failed States: The Problems of Prohibition London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Jütersonke O, Muggah R, Rogers D 2009. Gangs, urban violence, and security interventions in Central America. Secur. Dialogue 40:4–5373–97
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Kacowicz A. 1998. Zones of Peace in the Third World: South America and West Africa in Comparative Perspective Albany: SUNY Press
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Kaldor M. 2001. New and Old Wars Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Kalyvas S. 2015. How civil wars help explain organized crime—and how they do not. J. Confl. Resolut. 59:815–40
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Kay C. 2001. Reflections on rural violence in Latin America. Third World Q 22:5741–75
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Keen D. 1996. The economic functions of violence in civil wars. Adelphi Pap. 383207–8
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Kenny P, Serrano M 2012. The Mexican state and organized crime: an unending story. Mexico's Security Failure: Collapse into Criminal Violence P Kenny, M Serrano, A Sotomayor pp. 29–53 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Kessler G, Gayol S. 2002. Violencias, Delitos y Justicias en la Argentina Buenos Aires: Manantial
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Koonings K. 2001. Armed actors, violence and democracy in Latin America in the 1990s: introductory notes. Bull. Lat. Am. Res. 20:4401–8
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Koonings K. 2012. New violence, insecurity and the state: comparative reflections on Latin America and Mexico. Violence, Coercion, and State-Making in Twentieth-Century Mexico: The Other Half of the Centaur W Pansters pp. 255–78 Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Koonings K, Kruijt D, eds. 1999. Societies in Fear: The Legacy of Civil War, Violence and Terror in Latin America London: Zed
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Koonings K, Kruijt D, eds. 2007. Fractured Cities: Social Exclusion, Urban Violence and Contested Spaces in Latin America London: Zed
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Kurtz M. 2013. Latin American State Building in Comparative Perspective: Social Foundations of Institutional Order Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Leeds E. 1996. Cocaine and parallel polities in the Brazilian urban periphery: constraints on local-level democratization. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 31:347–83
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Lessing B. 2015. Logic of violence in criminal war. J. Confl. Resolut. 59:8486–516
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Lessing B. 2017. Making Peace in Drug Wars: Crackdowns and Cartels in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Lessing B. 2018. Research notes Lecture presented at Criminal Governance in the Americas Conference, Univ. Chicago Oct. 26
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Lessing B. 2020. Conceptualizing criminal governance. Perspect. Politics 19:3854–73
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Lessing B, Willis G. 2019. Legitimacy in criminal governance: managing a drug empire from behind bars. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 113:284–606
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Ley S, Mattiace S, Trejo G. 2019. Indigenous resistance to criminal governance: why regional ethnic autonomy institutions protect communities from narco rule in Mexico. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 54:1181–200
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Llorente MV, McDermott J 2014. Colombia's lessons for Mexico. One Goal, Two Struggles: Confronting Crime and Violence in Colombia and Mexico C Arnson, E Olson, C Zaino 1–37 Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Cent.
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Luneke A. 2021. Narcotráfico: escuchando las prioridades desde los ‘barrios críticos. .’ CIPER June 3. https://www.ciperchile.cl/2021/03/06/narcotrafico-escuchando-las-prioridades-desde-los-barrios-criticos/
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Magaloni B, Franco-Vivanco E, Melo V. 2020. Killing in the slums: social order, criminal governance, and police violence in Rio De Janeiro. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 114:2552–72
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Mahoney J. 2010. Colonialism and Postcolonial Development: Spanish America in Comparative Perspective Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Makarenko T. 2004. The crime-terror continuum: tracing the interplay between transnational organised crime and terrorism. Glob. Crime 6:1129–45
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Mann M. 1993. The Sources of Social Power: The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760–1914 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Mantilla J, Feldmann AE. 2021. Criminal governance in Latin America. The Oxford Research Encyclopedias of Criminology and Criminal Justice Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press https://oxfordre.com/criminology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-697
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Mares D. 2001. Violent Peace: Militarized Interstate Bargaining in Latin America New York: Columbia Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Mazzei J. 2009. Death Squads or Self-Defense Forces? How Paramilitary Groups Emerge and Challenge Democracy in Latin America Chapel Hill: Univ. N. C. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Mazzuca SL. 2021. Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Mazzuca SL, Munck G. 2021. A Middle-Quality Institutional Trap: Democracy and State Capacity in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Méndez J, O'Donnell G, Pinheiro PS, eds. 1996. The (Un)Rule of Law and the Underprivileged in Latin America Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Migdal J. 2001. State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Transform and Constitute One Another Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Moncada E. 2016. Cities, Business, and the Politics of Urban Violence in Latin America Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Moncada E. 2017. Varieties of vigilantism: conceptual discord, meaning and strategies. Glob. Crime 18:403–23
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Moncada E. 2020. The politics of criminal victimization: pursuing and resisting power. Perspect. Politics 18:3706–21
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Moncada E. 2021. The politics of crime in Latin America: new insights, future challenges. Lat. Am. Politics Soc. 63:1165–73
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Moriconi M, Peris CA. 2019. Merging legality with illegality in Paraguay: the cluster of order in Pedro Juan Caballero. Third World Q 40:122210–27
    [Google Scholar]
  114. O'Donnell G. 1993. On the state, democratization and some conceptual problems: a Latin American view with some glances at post-communist countries. World Dev 21:81355–69
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Payne L. 2000. Uncivil Movements: The Armed Right Wing and Democracy in Latin America Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Pegoraro J. 2000. Violencia delictiva, inseguridad urbana Nueva Soc 167114–31
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Pereira AW, Davis D. 2000. New patterns of militarized violence in the Americas. Lat. Am. Perspect. 27:23–17
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Phillips BJ. 2015. How does leadership decapitation affect violence? The case of drug trafficking organizations in Mexico. J. Politics 77:2324–36
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Phillips BJ. 2017. Inequality and the emergence of vigilante organizations: the case of Mexican autodefensas. Comp. Political Stud. 50:101358–89
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Pion-Berlin D. 1989. The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Policzer P. 2009. The Rise and Fall of Repression in Chile Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Policzer P. 2019. The Politics of Violence in Latin America Calgary, Can: Univ. Calgary Press
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Programa Estado Nac. 2021. Dinámicas territoriales de la violencia homicida. . In Sexto Informe Estado de la Región M Guzmán, J Vargas, A Mora 353–76 San José, Costa Rica: CONARE https://repositorio.conare.ac.cr/bitstream/handle/20.500.12337/8105/PEN_informe_estado_region_capitulo_11_2021.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Reuter P. 1985. Disorganized Crime: The Economics of the Visible Hand Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Rios V. 2013. Why did Mexico become so violent? A self-reinforcing national equilibrium caused by competition and enforcement. Trends Organ. Crime 16:138–55
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Rodgers D. 2006. Living in the shadow of death: gangs, violence and social order in urban Nicaragua, 1996–2002. J. Lat. Am. Stud. 38:2267–92
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Rotberg R. 2004. When States Fail: Causes and Consequences Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Rotker S 2002. Citizens of Fear: Urban Violence in Latin America New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Santamaría G, Carey D. 2017. Violence and Crime in Latin America Norman: Univ. Okla. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Saylor R. 2014. State Building in Boom Times: Commodities and Coalitions in Latin America and Africa Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Scheper-Hughes N. 1992. Death Without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Skaperdas S. 2001. The political economy of organized crime: providing protection when the state does not. Econ. Gov. 2:3173–202
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Skaperdas S, Syropoulos C 1997. Gangs as primitive states. The Economics of Organised Crime G Fiorentini, S Peltzman 61–78 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Snyder R, Durán-Martínez A. 2009. Does illegality breed violence? Drug trafficking and state sponsored protection rackets. Crime Law Soc. Change 52:253–73
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Soifer H. 2015. State Building in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Solar C. 2018. Government and Governance of Security: The Politics of Organised Crime in Chile London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Staniland P. 2012. States, insurgents and wartime political orders. Perspect. Politics 10:2243–64
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Strange S. 1996. The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Thoumi F. 2002. Illegal drugs in Colombia: from illegal economic boom to social crisis. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 582:102–16
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Tilly C 1985. War making and state making as organized crime. Bringing the State Back In P Evans, D Rueschemeyer, T Skocpol 169–91 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Tilly C. 1995. State incited violence, 1900–1999. Political Power and Social Theory D Davis, H Kimeldorf 161–79 Greenwich, CT: JAI
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Trejo G, Ley S. 2017. Why did drug cartels go to war in Mexico? Subnational party alternation, the breakdown of criminal protection, and the onset of large-scale violence. Comp. Political Stud. 51:7900–37
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Trejo G, Ley S. 2020. Votes, Drugs and Violence: The Political Logic of Criminal Wars in Mexico Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  144. UNDP (UN Dev. Program) 2013. Citizen Security with a Human Face: Evidence and Proposals for Latin America Rep. UN Dev. Program Geneva: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/citizen-security-human-face
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Varese F. 2017. What is organised crime?. What Is Organised Crime? Redefining Organised Crime: A Challenge for the European Union S Carnevale, S Forlati, O Giolo 27–53 Oxford, UK: Hart
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Vilalta C. 2020. Violence in Latin America: an overview of research and issues. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 46:693–706
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Volkov V. 2002. Violent Entrepreneurs: The Use of Force in the Making of Russian Capitalism Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Wickham-Crowley T. 2014. Two waves of guerrilla movement organizing in Latin America, 1956–1990. Comp. Stud. Soc. Hist. 56:1215–42
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Williams P. 2012. The terrorism debate over Mexican drug trafficking violence. Terror. . Political Violence 24:2259–78
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Wolff MJ. 2020. Insurgent vigilantism and drug war in Mexico. J. Politics Lat. Am. 12:132–52
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Yashar D. 2018. Homicidal Ecologies: Illicit Economies and Complicit States in Latin America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Zaverucha J. 2000. Fragile democracy and the militarization of public safety in Brazil. Lat. Am. Perspect. 27:38–31
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Zubillaga V, Llorens M, Souto J. 2019. Micropolitics in a Caracas barrio: the political survival strategies of mothers in a context of armed violence. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 54:2429–43
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-124931
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-124931
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error