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A number of aposematic butterfly and diurnal moth species sequester unpalatable or toxic substances from their host plants rather than manufacturing their own defensive substances. Despite a great diversity in their life histories, there are some general features in the selective utilization of plant secondary metabolites to achieve effective protection from predators. This review illustrates the biochemical, physiological, and ecological characteristics of phytochemical-based defense systems that can shed light on the evolution of the widely developed sequestering lifestyles among the Lepidoptera.
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Examples of plant allelochemicals sequestered by Lepidoptera:
Terpenoids [Suppl. 1]
Cardenolides (CGs) |
Calactin, Oleandrin |
Grayanoid diterpenes (GTs) |
Asebotoxin I, Grayanotoxin III |
Podocarpaceae norditerpenes |
Inumakilactone A, Nagilactone C |
Ingenane diterpenes |
Ingol, Ingenol (esters) |
Iridoid glycosides (IGs) |
Catalpol, Aucubin, Antirrinoside |
Phenolics and lactones [Suppl. 2]
Lichen phenolics |
Parietin, Atranorin |
Fungal phenolics |
Mellein |
Cannabinoids |
Δ1-Tetrahydocannabinol |
Butenolides |
Isosiphonodin, Siphonodin |
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) |
Lycopsamine, Monocrotaline, Senecionine, Parsonsine, Callimorphine, Creatonotine (N-oxides), Danaidone, Danaidal, Hydroxydanaidal, Viridifloric β-lactone, Ithomiolide A |
Tropane alkaloids (TAs) |
Hyoscyamine, Atropine, Cocaine, Calystegines A3 and B2 |
Azafuranose/azapyranose |
DMDP, α-Homonojirimycin |
Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) |
Cytisine, N-Methylcytisine |
Amaryllidaceae alkaloids |
Lycorine, Vitatine |
β-Carboline alkaloids |
Harman, Harmine |
Iridoid alkaloids |
Rhexifolin |
Phenanthroindolizine alkaloids |
3-Demethyl-14α-hydroxyisotylocrebrine N-oxide |
Other nitrogen-containing metabolites [Suppl. 4]
Aristolochic acids (AAs) |
Aristolochic acids I and II |
Cyanogenic glycosides (CNs) |
Linamarin, Lotaustralin, Gynocardin, Epivolkenin, [Sarauriculatin] |
Sarmentosin (SA) |
Sarmentosin |
Cycasin (CY) |
Cycasin |
Glucosinolates (GLs) |
Sinigrin, [Allyl isothiocyanate] |
Alerting chemicals [Suppl. 5]
Pyrazines |
2-Methoxy-3-alkylpyrazine |
Carotenoids |
β-Carotene, Lutein |
Flavonoids |
Tricin, Quercetin (3-O-glycosides) |