1932

Abstract

This article offers an overview of and commentary on the US approach to corporate prosecution and punishment. Though the United States purports to have a vigorous system of corporate criminal law enforcement, one could reasonably ask whether that system actually takes corporate crime seriously. Corporate prosecutions, convictions, and punishment continue to be rare events. Sanctions leveraged against corporations range from those whose effectiveness remains unproved, to those that are provably ineffective, to those that are conceptually and practically incoherent. One could also reasonably ask to what extent the United States even has a corporate criminal law to enforce. The recent history of corporate criminal law enforcement reflects a discernable shift in discretion from judges to prosecutors. This period is marked by the importance of extralegal prosecutorial guidelines, the absence of controlling case law, large gaps in statutory law, and long-called-for law reforms. One result is a systematic shift from reliance on public enforcement to private self-regulation. Not only are the resulting costs to the private sector substantial and growing, but the problems with relying on corporations to police themselves are plain to see. Amid these challenges, the thirst for private-sector responsibility and accountability should motivate continued debate over the prosecution and punishment of corporations.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031212
2019-10-13
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/lawsocsci/15/1/annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031212.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031212&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alchian A, Demsetz H. 1972. Production, information costs and economic organization. Am. Econ. Rev. 62:777–95
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Alexander CR, Arlen J, Cohen MA 1999. Regulating corporate criminal sanctions: federal guidelines and the sentencing of public firms. J. Law Econ. 42:393–416
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Alexander CR, Cohen M. 2011. The causes of corporate crime: an economic perspective. Prosecutors in the Boardroom A Barkow, R Barkow 11–37 New York: N. Y. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Alschuler A. 1991. Ancient law and the punishment of corporation: of frankpledge and deodand. Boston Univ. Law Rev. 71:307–13
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Alschuler A. 2009. Two ways to think about the punishment of corporations. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 46:1359–92
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Anon 1979. Corporate crime: regulating corporate behavior through criminal sanctions. Harvard Law Rev 92:1227–375
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Arlen J. 1994. The potentially perverse effects of corporate criminal liability. J. Leg. Stud. 23:833–67
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Arlen J. 2012. The failure of the organizational sentencing guidelines. Univ. Miami Law Rev. 66:321–62
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Arlen J. 2016. Prosecuting beyond the rule of law: corporate mandates imposed through deferred prosecution agreements. J. Leg. Anal. 8:191–234
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Ayres I, Braithwaite J. 1992. Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  11. Baer MH. 2009. Linkage and the deterrence of corporate fraud. Va. Law Rev. 94:949–1019
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Baer MH. 2012. Choosing punishment. Boston Univ. Law Rev. 92:577–642
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Baer M. 2016a. The stick that never was: parsing the Yates memo and the revised principles of federal prosecution of business organizations. Compliance and Enforcement Aug. 31. https://wp.nyu.edu/compliance_enforcement/2016/08/31/the-stick-that-never-was-parsing-the-yates-memo-and-the-revised-principles-of-federal-prosecution-of-business-organizations
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Baer MH. 2016b. Too vast to succeed. Mich. Law Rev. 114:1109–36
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Baldwin R, Black J. 2008. Really responsive regulation. Mod. Law Rev. 71:59–94
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Barkow R. 2011. The prosecutor as regulatory agency. Prosecutors in the Boardroom AS Barkow, RE Barkow 177–201 New York: N. Y. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Beal S. 2009. A response to the critics of corporate criminal liability. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 46:1481–505
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Black J. 2001. Decentering regulation: understanding the role of regulation and self-regulation in a “postregulatory” world. Curr. Leg. Probl. 54:103–46
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bloom P, Veres C. 1999. The perceived intentionality of groups. Cognition 71:B1–B9
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Boozang K, Handler-Hutchinson S. 2009. “Monitoring” corporate corruption: DOJ's use of deferred prosecution agreement in health care. Am. J. Law Med. 35:89–124
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Bourjaily G. 2015. DPA DOA: how and why Congress should bar the use of deferred and non-prosecution agreements in corporate criminal prosecutions. Harvard J. Legis. 52:543–69
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bowman F. 2004. Drifting down the Dneiper with Prince Potemkin: some skeptical reflections about the place of compliance programs in federal criminal sentencing. Wake Forest Law Rev 39:671–90
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Braithwaite J. 1982. Enforced self-regulation: a new strategy for corporate crime control. Mich. Law Rev. 80:1466–507
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Bratman ME. 2017. The intentions of a group. See Orts & Smith 2017 36–52
  25. Brickey K. 1988. Rethinking corporate liability under the Model Penal Code. Rutgers Law J 19:593–632
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Brown D. 2001. Street crime, corporate crime, and the contingency of criminal liability. Univ. Pa. Law Rev. 149:1295–360
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Bucy P. 1991. Corporate ethos: a standard for imposing corporate criminal liability. Minn. Law Rev. 75:1095–184
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Buell S. 2006. The blaming function of entity criminal liability. Indiana Law J 81:473–537
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Clinard M, Yeager P. 1980. Corporate Crime New York: Free
  30. Coffee J. 1981. No soul to damn and no body to kick: an unscandalized inquiry into the problem of corporate punishment. Mich. Law Rev. 79:386–459
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Coffee J. 1991. Does “unlawful” mean “criminal”? Reflections on the disappearing tort/crime distinction in American criminal law. Boston Univ. Law Rev. 71:193–246
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Coleman B. 1975. Is corporate criminal liability really necessary?. Southwest. Law J. 29:908–27
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Cressey DR. 1989. The poverty of theory in corporate crime research. Advances in Criminological Theory 1 WS Laufer, F Adler 31–55 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Cullen FT, Link BG, Polanzi CW 1982. The seriousness of crime revisited: Have attitudes toward white collar crime changed. Criminology 20:83–102
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Cunningham L. 2014. Deferred prosecutions and corporate governance: an integrated approach to investigation and reform. Fla. Law Rev. 66:1–85
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Delaney R. 2009. Congressional legislation: the next step for corporate deferred prosecution agreement. Marquette Law Rev 93:875–904
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Diamantis ME. 2016. Corporate criminal minds. Notre Dame Law Rev 91:2049–90
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Diamantis ME. 2018. Clockwork corporations: a character theory of corporate punishment. Iowa Law Rev 103:507–69
    [Google Scholar]
  39. DiMento JFC, Geis G, Gelfand JM 2001. Corporate criminal liability: a bibliography. West. State Univ. Law Rev. 28:1–64
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Eisinger J. 2017. The Chickenshit Club: Why the Justice Department Fails to Prosecute Executives New York: Simon and Schuster
  41. Ethics Resour. Cent. (ERC) 2012. National Business Ethics Survey: Workplace Ethics in Transition Arlington, VA: Ethics Resour. Cent.
  42. Fairfax RA. 2011. From overcriminalization to smart on crime: American criminal justice reform—legacy and prospects. J. Law Econ. Policy 7:597–616
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Filip M. 2008. Principles of federal prosecution of business organizations Memo., Dep. Atty. Gen., US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: Aug. 28. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/dag/legacy/2008/11/03/dag-memo-08282008.pdf
  44. Finder LD, McConnell RD. 2006. Devolution of authority: the Department of Justice's corporate charging policies. St. Louis Univ. Law J. 51:14–26
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Fischel D, Sykes A. 1996. Corporate crime. J. Leg. Stud. 25:319–49
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Fisse B. 1983. Reconstructing corporate criminal law: deterrence, retribution, fault, and sanctions. South. Calif. Law Rev. 56:1141–246
    [Google Scholar]
  47. French PA. 1975. Types of collectivities and blame. Personalist 56:160–69
    [Google Scholar]
  48. French PA. 1984. Collective and Corporate Responsibility New York: Columbia Univ. Press
  49. French PA. 2017. The diachronic moral responsibility of firms. See Orts & Smith 2017 53–65
  50. Friedman L. 2000. In defense of corporate criminal liability. Harvard J. Law Public Policy 23:833–58
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Garrett BL. 2011. Globalized corporate prosecutions. Va. Law Rev. 97:1775–875
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Garrett BL. 2014. Too Big to Jail: How Prosecutors Compromise with Corporations London: Harvard Univ. Press
  53. Geis G, DiMento J. 2002. Empirical evidence and the doctrine of corporate criminal liability. Am. J. Crim. Law 29:341–75
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Gibson Dunn 2019. 2018 Year-end update on corporate non-prosecution agreements and deferred prosecution agreements Client Update, Jan. 10. https://www.gibsondunn.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/2018-year-end-npa-dpa-update.pdf
  55. Gilchrist GM. 2014. The special problem of banks and crime. Univ. Colo. Law Rev. 85:1–52
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Golumbic C, Lichy A. 2014. The “too big to jail” effect and the impact on the Justice Department's corporate charging policy. Hastings Law J 65:1293–344
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Greenblum BM. 2005. What happens to a prosecution deferred? Judicial oversight of corporate deferred prosecution agreements. Columbia Law Rev 105:1863–904
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Griffith SJ. 2016. Corporate governance in an era of compliance. William Mary Law Rev 57:2075–140
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Gruner R. 1981. Towards an organizational jurisprudence: transforming corporate criminal law through federal sentencing reform. Ariz. Law Rev. 36:408–72
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Gruner R. 1994. Corporate Crime and Sentencing Charlottesville, VA: Mitchie Co.
  61. Hagan J. 2012. Who Are the Criminals? The Politics of Crime Policy from the Age of Roosevelt to the Age of Reagan Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  62. Hart H. 1958. The aims of criminal law. Law Contemp. Probl. 23:401–41
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Haslam S. 2001. Psychology in Organizations: The Social Identity Approach London: Sage Publ.
  64. Hasnas J. 2009. The centenary of a mistake: one hundred years of corporate criminal liability. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 46:1329–58
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Hasnas J. 2014. A context for evaluating Department of Justice policy on the prosecution of business organizations: Is the Department of Justice playing in the right ballpark?. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 51:7–27
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Hasnas J. 2017. The phantom menace of the responsibility deficit. See Orts & Smith 2017 89–105
  67. Hess D. 2016. Ethical infrastructures and evidence-based corporate compliance and ethics programs: policy implications from the empirical evidence. N.Y. J. Law Bus. 12:317–68
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Holder E. 1999. Bringing criminal charges against corporations Memo., Dep. Atty. Gen., US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: June 16. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-fraud/legacy/2010/04/11/charging-corps.PDF
  69. Jensen M, Meckling W. 1976. Theory of the firm: managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. J. Financ. Econ. 3:305–60
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Joh EE, Joo TW. 2015. The corporation as snitch: the new DOJ Guidelines on prosecuting white collar crime. Va. Law Rev. Online 101:51–59
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Kahan D. 1998. Social norms, social meaning, and the economic analysis of law. J. Leg. Stud. 27:609–22
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Kant I. 1887 (1797). The Philosophy of Law transl. W Hastie Edinburgh: T & T Clark
  73. Kant I. 1996 (1797). Metaphysics of Morals transl. M Gregor Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  74. Karpoff JM, Lott JR. 1993. The reputational penalty firms bear for committing criminal fraud. J. Law Econ. 36:757–802
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Karpoff JM, Lott JR, Wehrly EW 2005. The reputational penalties for environmental violations: empirical evidence. J. Law Econ. 48:653–75
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Khanna V. 1996. Corporate criminal liability: What purpose does it serve. Harvard Law Rev 109:1477–534
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Knobe J, Prinz J. 2008. Intuitions about consciousness: experimental studies. Phenomenol. Cogn. Sci. 7:67–83
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Kraakman RH. 1984. Corporate liability strategies and the costs of legal controls. Yale Law J 93:857–98
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Krawiec KD. 2003. Cosmetic compliance and the failure of negotiated governance. Wash. Univ. Law Q. 81:487–544
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Kurland NB. 1993. The defense industry initiative: ethics, self-regulation, and accountability. J. Bus. Ethics 12:137–45
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Laufer WS. 1994. Corporate bodies and guilty minds. Emory Law J 43:647–730
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Laufer WS. 1999. Corporate liability, risk shifting, and the paradox of compliance. Vanderbilt Law Rev 52:1343–420
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Laufer WS. 2008. Corporate Bodies and Guilty Minds: The Failure of Corporate Criminal Liability Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  84. Laufer WS. 2014. Where is the moral indignation over corporate crime?. Regulating Corporate Criminal Liability D Brodowski, M Espinoza de los Monteros de la Parr, K Tiedenmann, J Vogel 19–32 Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Laufer WS. 2017. The missing account of progressive corporate criminal law. N.Y. Univ. J. Law Bus. 14:71–142
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Laufer WS. 2018. A very special regulatory milestone. Univ. Pa. J. Bus. Law 20:392–428
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Laufer WS, Strudler A. 2000. Corporate intentionality, desert, and variants of vicarious liability. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 37:1285–312
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Laufer WS, Strudler A. 2007. Corporate crimes and making amends. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 44:1307–18
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Lerner C. 2018. The trial of Joseph Dotterweich: the origins of the “responsible corporate officer” doctrine. Crim. Law Philos. 12:493–512
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Malle B. 2010. The moral and social cognition of group agents. J. Law Policy 19:95–136
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Markham JW. 2017. Regulating the “too big to jail” financial institutions. Brooklyn Law Rev 83:517–77
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Markoff G. 2013. Arthur Andersen and the myth of the corporate death penalty: corporate criminal convictions in the twenty-first century. Univ. Pa. J. Bus. Law 15:797–836
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Martin AN. 2012. Cosmetic use and lack of precision in compliance programs: Any solution. eucrim 3:124–27
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Michel C, Cochran JK, Heide KM 2016. Public knowledge about white collar crime: an exploratory study. Crim. Law Soc. Change 65:67–91
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Moore J. 1992. Corporate culpability under the federal sentencing guidelines. Ariz. Law Rev. 34:743–97
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Moore M. 1987. The moral worth of retribution. Responsibility, Character and Emotions F Schoeman 179–219 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Mueller GOW. 1957. Mens rea and the corporation: a study of the Model Penal Code position on corporate criminal liability. Univ. Pittsburgh Law Rev. 19:21–50
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Nagel I, Swenson W. 1993. The federal sentencing guidelines for corporations: their development, theoretical underpinnings, and some thoughts about their future. Wash. Univ. Law Q. 71:205–59
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Needleman ML, Needleman C. 1979. Organizational crime: two models of criminogenesis. Sociol. Q. 20:517–28
    [Google Scholar]
  100. New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Co. v. United States 212 U.S 481 1909.
  101. Nielsen VL, Parker C. 2009. Testing responsive regulation in regulatory enforcement. Regul. Gov. 3:376–99
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Orts EW. 2017. The moral responsibility of firms: past, present, and future. See Orts & Smith 2017 206–24
  103. Orts EW, Smith NC 2017. The Moral Responsibility of Firms New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  104. O'Sullivan J. 2009. Federal White Collar Crime: Cases and Materials Eagan, MN: West Acad. Publ.
  105. Parker C. 2002. The Open Corporation: Effective Self-Regulation and Democracy Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  106. Parker JS. 1996. Doctrine for destruction: the case of corporate criminal liability. Manag. Decis. Econ. 17:381–98
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Paulsen E. 2007. Imposing limits on prosecutorial discretion in corporate prosecution agreement. N. Y. Univ. Law Rev. 82:1434–69
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Pettit P. 2001. Collective intentions. Intention in Law and Philosophy N Naffine, RJ Owens, JM Williams 241–54 Farnham, UK: Ashgate
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Pettit P. 2007. Responsibility incorporated. Ethics 117:171–201
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Pettit P. 2017. The conversably responsible corporation. See Orts & Smith 2017 15–35
  111. Piquero NL, Carmichael S, Piquero AR 2008. Assessing the perceived seriousness of white-collar and street crimes. Crim. Delinq. 54:291–312
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Pitt HL, Groskufmanis K. 1991. Mischief afoot: the need for incentives to control corporate criminal conduct. Boston Univ. Law Rev. 71:447–53
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Pontell HN, Black WK, Geis G 2014. Too big to fail, too powerful to jail? On the absence of criminal prosecutions after the 2008 financial meltdown. Crim. Law Soc. Change 61:1–13
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Rashkover B. 2004. Reforming corporations through prosecution: perspectives from an SEC enforcement lawyer. Cornell Law Rev 89:535–52
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Richman D. 2007. Institutional competence and organizational prosecutions. Va. Law Rev. Brief 93:115–20
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Robinson P. 2013. Intuitions of Justice and the Utility of Desert Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  117. Rönnegard D, Velasquez M. 2017. On (not) attributing moral responsibility to organizations. See Orts & Smith 2017 123–42
  118. Runnels M. 2011. Dispute resolution and new governance: the role of the corporate apology. Seattle Univ. Law Rev. 43:481–505
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Schell-Busey N, Simpson SS, Rorie M, Alper M 2016. What works? A systematic review of corporate crime deterrence. Criminol. Public Policy 15:387–416
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Schwartz LB. 1977. Reform of the federal criminal laws: issues, tactics, and prospects. Duke Law J 1977:171–230
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Sepinwall A. 2015. Crossing the fault line in corporate criminal law. J. Corp. Law 40:439–82
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Sepinwall A. 2017. Blame, emotions, and the corporation. See Orts & Smith 2017 143–68
  123. Sherman SJ, Percy EJ. 2010. The psychology of collective responsibility: when and why collective entities are held responsible for the misdeeds of individual members. J. Law Policy 19:137–70
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Silets H, Brenner S. 1986. The demise of rehabilitation: sentencing reform and the sanctioning of organizational criminality. Am. J. Crim. Law 13:329–80
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Simpson SS. 2019. Reimagining Sutherland 80 years after white-collar crime. Criminology 57:189–207
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Simpson SS, Rorie M, Schell-Busey N, Alper M, Laufer W, Smith NC 2014. Corporate crime deterrence: a systematic review. Campbell Syst. Rev. 10 1–105
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Simpson SS, Yeager PC. 2015. Building a Comprehensive White-Collar Violations Data System Washington, DC: Bur. Justice Stat.
  128. Soltes E. 2018. Evaluating the effectiveness of corporate compliance programs: establishing a model for prosecutors, courts, and firms. N. Y. Univ. J. Law Bus. 14:965–1011
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Spivack P, Raman S. 2008. Regulating the new regulators: current trends in deferred prosecution agreements. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 45:159–90
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Stevens B. 1994. An analysis of corporate ethical code studies: “Where do we go from here?”. J. Bus. Ethics 13:63–69
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Stevenson DD, Wagoner N. 2011. FCPA sanctions: too big to debar. Fordham Law Rev 80:775–820
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Stolz B. 1984. Interest groups and criminal law: the case of federal criminal law revision. Crim. Delinq. 30:91–106
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Thomas W. 2019. Incapacitating criminal corporations. Vanderbilt Law Rev 72:905–73
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Thompson L. 2010. The blameless corporation. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 47:1251–55
    [Google Scholar]
  135. TracReports 2015. Justice Department data reveal 29 percent drop in criminal prosecutions of corporations Rep., TracReports, Syracuse, NY. https://perma.cc/63KH-DY5G
  136. TracReports 2018. White collar prosecutions fall to lowest in 20 years Rep., TracReports, Syracuse, NY. https://trac.syr.edu/tracreports/crim/514/
  137. Uhlmann DM. 2012. Deferred prosecution and non-prosecution agreements and the erosion of corporate criminal liability. Md. Law Rev. 72:1295–344
    [Google Scholar]
  138. United States v. Bank of New England 821 F.2d 844 (1st Cir. 1987)
  139. United States v. Dotterweich 320 U.S. 277284 1943.
  140. US Census Bur 2015. American Community Survey Washington, DC: US Census Bur.
  141. US Dep. Justice, Crim. Div 2016. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Enforcement Plan and Guidance Washington, DC: US Dep. Justice
  142. US Dep. Justice, Crim. Div 2017. Evaluation of Corporate Compliance Programs Washington, DC: US Dep. Justice
  143. US Dep. Justice, Crim. Div 2019. Evaluation of Corporate Compliance Programs Washington, DC: US Dep. Justice
  144. US Sentencing Comm. (USSC) 2015. Sourcebook of Federal Sentencing Statistics Washington, DC: US Sentencing Comm https://www.ussc.gov/research/sourcebook/archive/sourcebook-2015
  145. US Sentencing Comm. (USSC) 2018. Organizational offenders Quick Facts, US Sentencing Comm Washington, DC: https://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/quick-facts/Organizational-Offenders_FY17.pdf
  146. Vera Inst. Justice 1977. Felony Arrests: Their Prosecution and Disposition in New York City Courts New York: Longman
  147. Walsh CJ, Pyrich A. 1995. Corporate compliance programs as a defense to criminal liability: Can a corporation save its soul?. Rutgers Law Rev 47:605–91
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Walt SD, Laufer WS. 1991. Why personhood doesn't matter: corporate criminal liability and sanctions. Am. J. Crim. Law 18:263–87
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Walt S, Laufer W. 1992. Corporate criminal liability and the comparative mix of sanctions. White Collar Crime Reconsidered K Schlegel, D Weisburd 309–31 Boston: Northeast. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Warren DE, Gaspar JP, Laufer WS 2014. Is formal ethics training merely cosmetic? A study of ethics training and ethical organizational culture. Bus. Ethics Q. 24:85–117
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Whyte D. 2007. Victims of corporate crime. Handbook of Victims and Victimology S Walklate 446–63 Portland: Willan Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Yates SQ. 2015. Individual accountability for corporate wrongdoing Memo., Dep. Atty. Gen., US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: Sept. 9. http://www.justice.gov/dag/file/769036/download
  153. Yockey JW. 2015. Beyond Yates: from engagement to accountability in corporate crime. N. Y. Univ. J. Law Bus. 12:407–21
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031212
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101317-031212
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error