1932

Abstract

Swencionis & Goff identified five situations that tend to increase the likelihood that an individual police officer may behave in a racially disparate way: discretion, inexperience, salience of crime, cognitive demand, and identity threat. This article applies their framework to the realities of police work, identifying situations and assignments in which these factors are likely to influence officers’ behavior. These insights may identify opportunities for further empirical research into racial disparities in such contexts and may highlight institutional reforms and policy changes that could reduce officers’ vulnerability to risks that can result in racially unjust actions.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042633
2020-10-13
2024-04-25
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/lawsocsci/16/1/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042633.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042633&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Ajzen I. 1988. Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior Chicago: Dorsey
  2. Andersen J, Pitel M, Weerasinghe A, Papazoglou K 2016. Highly realistic scenario based training simulates the psychophysiology of real world use of force encounters: implications for improved police officer performance. J. Law Enforc. 5:1–13
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Anderson GS, Courtney A, Plecas D, Chamberlin C 2005. Multi‐tasking behaviors of general duty police officers. Police Pract. Res. 6:139–48
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Andrews DA. 1983. The Level of Supervision Inventory: The First Follow-Up Toronto: Ont. Minist. Correct. Serv.
  5. Andrews DA, Bonta J, Motiuk L, Robinson D 1984. Some psychometrics of practical risk/needs assessment Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Tor., Can .
  6. Andrews DA, Bonta J, Wormith SJ 2006. The recent past and near future of risk and/or need assessment. Crime Delinq 52:7–27
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Baldus DC, Pulaski C, Woodworth G 1983. Comparative review of death sentences: an empirical study of the Georgia experience. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 74:3661–753
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Barrows J, Huff CR. 2009. Gangs and public policy. Criminol. Public Policy 8:4675–703
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bergsieker HB, Shelton JN, Richeson JA 2010. To be liked versus respected: divergent goals in interracial interactions. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 99:2248–64
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bishara AJ, Payne BK. 2009. Multinomial process tree models of control and automaticity in weapon misidentification. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 45:3524–34
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Blair JP, Pollock J, Montague D, Nichols T, Curnutt J, Burns D 2011. Reasonableness and reaction time. Police Q 14:4323–43
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bloche MG. 2001. Race and discretion in American medicine. Yale J. Health Policy Law Ethics 1:95–131
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bodenhausen GV. 1988. Stereotypic biases in social decision making and memory: testing process models of stereotype use. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 55:5726–37
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bolton K, Feagin J. 2004. Black in Blue: African-American Police Officers and Racism New York: Routledge, 1st ed..
  15. Branscombe NR, Ellemers N, Spears R, Doosje B 1999. The context and content of social identity threats. Social Identity: Context, Commitment, Content N Ellemers, R Spears, B Doosje 35–56 Oxford, UK: Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Broadbent DE. 1958. Perception and Communication Elmsford, NY: Pergamon
  17. Brown B. 2006. Understanding and assessing school police officers: a conceptual and methodological comment. J. Crim. Justice 34:6591–604
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Brown R, Frank J. 2006. Race and officer decision making: examining differences in arrest outcomes between black and white officers. Justice Q 23:96–126
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Buchanan KS, Goff PA. 2019. Bodycams and gender equity: watching men, ignoring justice. Public Cult 31:3625–44
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Buchanan KS, Goff PA. 2020. Racist stereotype threat in civil rights law. UCLA Law Rev 67:31677
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Burke RJ, Mikkelsen A. 2006. Burnout among Norwegian police officers: potential antecedents and consequences. Int. J. Stress Manag. 13:164–83
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bursik RJ, Grasmick H. 1995. Defining gangs and gang behavior. The Modern Gang Reader J Miller, CL Maxson, MW Klein 8–13 Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Byrne J, Pattavina A. 2006. Assessing the role of clinical and actuarial risk assessment in an evidence-based community corrections system: issues to consider. Fed. Probat. 70:264–67
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Campbell MA, French S, Gendreau P 2009. The prediction of violence in adult offenders: a meta-analytic comparison of instruments and methods of assessment. Crim. Justice Behav. 36:567–90
    [Google Scholar]
  25. City and County of San Francisco v. Sheehan 575 U.S. 600 2015.
  26. Cohn AM, Seibert LA, Zeichner A 2009. The role of restrictive emotionality, trait anger, and masculinity threat in men's perpetration of physical aggression. Psychol. Men Masc. 10:3218–24
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Correll J, Park B, Judd CM, Wittenbrink B 2002. The police officer's dilemma: using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 83:61314–29
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Correll J, Park B, Judd CM, Wittenbrink B 2007. The influence of stereotypes on decisions to shoot. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 37:61102–17
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Correll J, Urland GR, Ito TA 2006. Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: the role of threat perception and cognitive control. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42:1120–28
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Corsianos M. 2003. Discretion in detectives’ decision making and “high profile” cases. Police Pract. Res. 4:3301–14
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Crandall CS, Eshleman A, O'Brien L 2002. Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: the struggle for internalization. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 82:3359–78
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Danziger S, Levav J, Avnaim-Pesso L 2011. Extraneous factors in judicial decisions. PNAS 108:176889–92
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Davies A. 2015. The hidden advantage in shoot/don't shoot simulation exercises for police recruit training. Salus 3:116–31
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Davis v. Scherer 468 U.S. 183 1984.
  35. Decker S, Kempf-Leonard K. 1991. Constructing gangs: the social definition of youth activities. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 5:4271–91
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Deutscher I. 1966. Words and deeds: social science and social policy. Soc. Probl. 13:235–54
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Devine PG. 1989. Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 56:15–18
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Douglas KS, Cox DN, Webster CD 1999. Violence risk assessment: science and practice. Leg. Criminol. Psychol. 4:149–84
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Dovidio JF. 2001. On the nature of contemporary prejudice: the third wave. J. Soc. Issues 57:4829–49
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. 2000. Aversive racism and selection decisions: 1989 and 1999. Psychol. Sci. 11:4315–19
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Dovidio JF, Glick P, Rudman LA 2008. On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years after Allport Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons
  42. Dror IE. 2007. Perception of risk and the decision to use force. Policing 1:3265–72
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Dror IE, Basola B, Busemeyer JR 1999. Decision making under time pressure: an independent test of sequential sampling models. Mem. Cogn. 27:4713–25
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Dumke M. 2018. Chicago's gang database is full of errors—and records we have prove it. ProPublica April 19. https://www.propublica.org/article/politic-il-insider-chicago-gang-database
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Eberhardt JL, Davies PG, Purdie-Vaughns VJ, Johnson SL 2006. Looking deathworthy: perceived stereotypicality of black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychol. Sci. 17:5383–86
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Eberhardt JL, Goff PA. 2005. Seeing race. Social Psychology of Prejudice: Historical and Contemporary Issues CS Crandall, M Schaller 215–32 Lawrence, KS: Lewinian
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Eberhardt JL, Goff PA, Purdie VJ, Davies PG 2004. Seeing black: race, crime, and visual processing. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 87:6876–93
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Education Week 2014. Which students are arrested most in school? (U.S. data by school. Education Week Jan. 24. https://www.edweek.org/ew/projects/2017/policing-americas-schools/index.html
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Epstein LM, Goff PA. 2011. Safety or liberty? The bogus trade-off of cross-deputization policy: safety, liberty, and cross-deputization. Anal. Soc. Issues Public Policy 11:1314–24
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Esbensen F-A, Brick BT, Melde C, Tusinski K, Taylor TJ 2008. The role of race and ethnicity in gang membership. Street Gangs, Migration, and Ethnicity F van Gemert, D Peterson, I-L Lien 117–39 London: Willan
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Esbensen F-A, Carson DC. 2012. Who are the gangsters? An examination of the age, race/ethnicity, sex, and immigration status of self-reported gang members in a seven-city study of American youth. J. Contemp. Crim. Justice 28:4465–81
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Feeley M, Simon J. 1992. The new penology: notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications. Criminology 30:449–74
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Feeley M, Simon J. 1994. Actuarial justice: the emerging new criminal law. The Futures of Criminology D Nelken 173–201 London: Sage Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Fijnaut CJCF, Marx GT. 1995. Undercover: Police Surveillance in Comparative Perspective Leiden, Neth: Martinus Nijhoff
  55. Fisher BW, Viano S, Curran FC, Skinner J 2017. School resource officers in the early grades: understanding the roles and activities of SROs in suburban elementary schools Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association New York: April
  56. Fitzgerald E, Patterson SE, Hickey D, Biko C, Tobin HJ 2015. Meaningful work: transgender experiences in the sex trade Rep., Natl. Cent. Transgend. Equal Washington, DC:
  57. Gaertner SL, Dovidio JF, Johnson G 1982. Race of victim, nonresponsive bystanders, and helping behavior. J. Soc. Psychol. 117:169–77
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Garcia V. 2005. Constructing the “other” within police culture: an analysis of a deviant unit within the police organization. Police Pract. Res. 6:165–80
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Garner J, Buchanan J, Schade T, Hepburn J, Fagan J, Mulcahy A 1995. Understanding the use of force by and against the police Final rep., Natl. Inst. Justice, Off. Justice Programs, US Dep. Justice Washington, DC:
  60. Gau JM, Terrill W, Paoline EA 2013. Looking up: explaining police promotional aspirations. Crim. Justice Behav. 40:3247–69
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Gelman A, Fagan J, Kiss A 2007. An analysis of the New York City police department's “stop-and-frisk” policy in the context of claims of racial bias. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 102:479813–23
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Girodo M. 1991. Drug corruption in undercover agents: measuring the risk. Behav. Sci. Law 9:3361–70
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Glick P, Gangl C, Gibb S, Klumpner S, Weinberg E 2007. Defensive reactions to masculinity threat: More negative affect toward effeminate (but not masculine) gay men. Sex Roles 57:1–255–59
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Goddard T, Myers RR. 2016. Against evidence-based oppression: marginalized youth and the politics of risk-based assessment and intervention. Theor. Criminol. 21:151–67
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Goff PA. 2016. Identity traps: how to think about race & policing. Behav. Sci. Policy 2:210–22
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Goff PA, Buchanan KS. 2020. A data-driven remedy for racial disparities: Compstat for justice. NYU Annu. Surv. Am. Law 76:2 In press
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Goff PA, Di Leone BAL, Kahn KB 2012. Racism leads to pushups: how racial discrimination threatens subordinate men's masculinity. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48:51111–16
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Goff PA, Eberhardt JL, Williams MJ, Jackson MC 2008a. Not yet human: implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 94:2292–306
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Goff PA, Epstein LM, Mentovich A, Reddy KS 2013. Illegitimacy is dangerous: how authorities experience and react to illegitimacy. Psychology 4:3340–44
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Goff PA, Godsil R. 2016. The moral ecology of policing: a mind science approach to race and policing in the United States. The Routledge Handbook of Criminal Justice Ethics J Jacobs, J Jackson 348–69 Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Goff PA, Kahn KB. 2012. Racial bias in policing: why we know less than we should. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 6:1177–210
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Goff PA, Rau H. 2020. Predicting bad policing: theorizing burdensome and racially disparate policing through the lenses of social psychology and routine activities. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 687:167–88
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Goff PA, Steele CM, Davies PG 2008b. The space between us: stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 94:191–107
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Govorun O, Payne BK. 2006. Ego-depletion and prejudice: separating automatic and controlled components. Soc. Cogn. 24:2111–36
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Graham v. Connor 490 U.S. 386 1989.
  76. Hagedorn JM. 1990. Back in the field again: gang research in the nineties. See Huff 1990 240–59
  77. Haggerty K, Ericson R. 2000. The surveillant assemblage. Br. J. Sociol. 51:605–22
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Hanson RK, Morton-Bourgon KE. 2009. The accuracy of recidivism risk assessments for sexual offenders: a meta-analysis of 118 prediction studies. Psychol. Assess. 21:1–21
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Harriot M. 2016. Taken without incident: why white criminals end up alive. The Root Nov. 3. https://www.theroot.com/taken-without-incident-why-white-criminals-end-up-aliv-1790857544
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Hirschfield P. 2008. Preparing for prison? The criminalization of school discipline in the USA. Theor. Criminol. 12:179–101
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Hudson CS, Ruth L, Simmons WW 2019. Policing Connecticut's hallways: the prevalence and impact of school resource officers in Connecticut Policy Rep., Conn. Voices Child. New Haven, CT:
  82. Huff CR 1990. Gangs in America Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE Publ, 4th ed..
  83. Hunter v. Bryant 502 U.S. 224 1991.
  84. Int. Assoc. Chiefs Police 2018. Sexual assault incident reports Doc., Int. Assoc. Chiefs Police https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/all/s/SexualAssaultGuidelines.pdf
  85. James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi M 2016. The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. Washington, DC: Natl. Cent. Transgend. Equal.
  86. Joh EE. 2009. Breaking the law to enforce it: undercover police participation in crime. Stanford Law Rev 62:1155–98
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Johnson v. Glick 481 F.2d 1028 (2nd Cir 1973.
  88. Kahn KB, Davies PG. 2011. Differentially dangerous? Phenotypic racial stereotypicality increases implicit bias among ingroup and outgroup members. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 14:4569–80
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Kahn KB, Goff PA, Lee JK, Motamed D 2016. Protecting whiteness: white phenotypic racial stereotypicality reduces police use of force. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 7:5403–11
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Kalish R, Kimmel M. 2010. Suicide by mass murder: masculinity, aggrieved entitlement, and rampage school shootings. Health Sociol. Rev. 19:4451–64
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Katz CM. 2003. Issues in the production and dissemination of gang statistics: an ethnographic study of a large midwestern police gang unit. Crime Delinq 49:3485–516
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Kawakami K, Dovidio JF, van Kamp S 2005. Kicking the habit: effects of nonstereotypic association training and correction processes on hiring decisions. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 41:168–75
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Kimmel MS, Mahler M. 2003. Adolescent masculinity, homophobia, and violence: random school shootings, 1982–2001. Am. Behav. Sci. 46:101439–58
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Klein MW. 1997. The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  95. Knowles J, Persico N, Todd P 2001. Racial bias in motor vehicle searches: theory and evidence. J. Political Econ. 109:1203–29
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Kool W, McGuire JT, Rosen ZB, Botvinick MM 2010. Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. J. Exp. Psychol. 139:4665–82
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Krieger LH, Fiske ST. 2006. Behavioral realism in employment discrimination law: implicit bias and disparate treatment. Calif. Law Rev. 94:4997–1067
    [Google Scholar]
  98. LaPierre R. 1934. Attitudes versus actions. Soc. Forces 13:230–37
    [Google Scholar]
  99. LeBlanc VR, MacDonald RD, McArthur B, King K, Lepine T 2005. Paramedic performance in calculating drug dosages following stressful scenarios in a human patient simulator. Prehospital Emerg. Care 9:4439–44
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Liang CTH, Salcedo J, Miller HA 2011. Perceived racism, masculinity ideologies, and gender role conflict among Latino men. Psychol. Men Masc. 12:3201–15
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Loftus B. 2010. Police occupational culture: classic themes, altered times. Polic. Soc. 20:1–20
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Lurigio AJ, Skogan WG. 1994. Winning the hearts and minds of police officers: an assessment of staff perceptions of community policing in Chicago. Crime Delinq 40:3315–30
    [Google Scholar]
  103. MacDonald J, Braga AA. 2019. Did post-Floyd et al. reforms reduce racial disparities in NYPD stop, question, and frisk practices? An exploratory analysis using external and internal benchmarks. Justice Q 36:5954–83
    [Google Scholar]
  104. MacLeod CM. 1998. Training on integrated versus separated Stroop tasks: the progression of interference and facilitation. Mem. Cogn. 26:2201–11
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Macrae CN, Bodenhausen GV, Milne AB, Jetten J 1994. Out of mind but back in sight: stereotypes on the rebound. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 67:5808–17
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Malley v. Briggs475 U.S. 335 1986.
  107. Martin KD, Smiedt MG, Goff PA 2013. Protecting equity: the consortium for police leadership in equity report on the San Jose Police Department Rep., Consort. Police Leadersh. Equity Los Angeles, CA:
  108. Marx GT. 1989. Undercover: Police Surveillance in America Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  109. May DC, Barranco R, Stokes E, Robertson AA, Haynes SH 2018. Do school resource officers really refer juveniles to the juvenile justice system for less serious offenses. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 29:189–105
    [Google Scholar]
  110. McElvain JP, Kposowa AJ. 2004. Police officer characteristics and internal affairs investigations for use of force allegations. J. Crim. Justice 32:3265–79
    [Google Scholar]
  111. McKenna JM, Martinez-Prather K, Bowman SW 2016. The roles of school-based law enforcement officers and how these roles are established: a qualitative study. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 27:4420–43
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Miller SL. 1999. Gender and Community Policing: Walking the Talk Boston: Northeast. Univ. Press
  113. Morris M, Epstein R, Yusef A 2016. Be her resource: a toolkit about School Resource Officers and girls of color Rep., Cent. Poverty Inequal., Georgetown Law Washington, DC:
  114. Mullenix v. Luna136 U.S. 305 2015.
  115. Na C, Gottfredson DC. 2013. Police officers in schools: effects on school crime and the processing of offending behaviors. Justice Q 30:4619–50
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Natl. Assoc. Sch. Resour. Off. (NASRO). n.d Basic 40-hour School Resource Officer course outline and objectives Doc., NASRO, Hoover, AL. https://www.nasro.org/clientuploads/Course%20Agendas/NASRO_Basic_Course_Description_and_Outline.pdf
  117. Natl. Gang Cent 2014. National Youth Gang Survey Analysis Tallahassee: Natl. Gang Cent.
  118. Navon D, Gopher D. 1979. On the economy of the human-processing system. Psychol. Rev. 86:3214–55
    [Google Scholar]
  119. O'Malley P. 2004. Risk, Uncertainty and Government London: Cave
  120. O'Malley P. 2010. Simulated justice: risk, money and telemetric policing. Br. J. Criminol. 50:795–807
    [Google Scholar]
  121. O'Neal EN, Tellis K, Spohn C 2015. Prosecuting intimate partner sexual assault: legal and extra-legal factors that influence charging decisions. Violence Against Women 21:101237–58
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Pashler H. 1994. Dual-task interference in simple tasks: data and theory. Psychol. Bull. 116:2220–44
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Payne BK. 2001. Prejudice and perception: the role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 81:2181–92
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2006. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90:5751–83
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Plant EA, Peruche BM. 2005. The consequences of race for police officers’ responses to criminal suspects. Psychol. Sci. 16:3180–83
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Plant EA, Peruche BM, Butz DA 2005. Eliminating automatic racial bias: making race non-diagnostic for responses to criminal suspects. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 41:2141–56
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Poteat VP, Kimmel MS, Wilchins R 2011. The moderating effects of support for violence beliefs on masculine norms, aggression, and homophobic behavior during adolescence: masculine norms and aggression. J. Res. Adolesc. 21:2434–47
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Rausch MK, Skiba R. 2006. Discipline, disability, and race: disproportionality in Indiana schools. Educ. Policy Brief 4:101–8
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Regehr C, LeBlanc V, Jelley RB, Barath I 2008. Acute stress and performance in police recruits. Stress Health 24:4295–303
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Richeson JA, Shelton JN. 2003. When prejudice does not pay: effects of interracial contact on executive function. Psychol. Sci. 14:3287–90
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Richeson JA, Trawalter S. 2005. Why do interracial interactions impair executive function? A resource depletion account. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 88:6934–47
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Richeson JA, Trawalter S, Shelton JN 2005. African Americans’ implicit racial attitudes and the depletion of executive function after interracial interactions. Soc. Cogn. 23:4336–52
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Rigakos GS. 1999. Risk society and actuarial criminology: prospect for critical discourse. Can. J. Criminol. 41:2137–50
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Robinson MD, Schmeichel BJ, Inzlicht M 2010. A cognitive control perspective of self‐control strength and its depletion. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 4:189–200
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Rosenbaum DP. 2000. The changing role of the police: assessing the current transition to community policing. Policing Communities: Understanding Crime and Solving Problems RW Glensor, ME Correia, KJ Peak 46–63 Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Salvatore J, Shelton JN. 2007. Cognitive costs of exposure to racial prejudice. Psychol. Sci. 18:9810–15
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Scheuer v. Rhodes 416 U.S. 232 1974.
  138. Schlosser MD. 2014. Multiple roles and potential role conflict of a school resource officer: a case study of the Midwest police department's school resource officer program in the United States. Int. J. Crim. Justice Sci. 9:1131–42
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Schwartz M, Alwin DF. 1971. The evaluation of social action. Handbook on the Study of Social Problems EO Smigel 609–34 Chicago: Rand McNally
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Sewell JD. 1994. The stress of homicide investigations. Death Stud 18:6565–82
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Shane JM. 2010. Organizational stressors and police performance. J. Crim. Justice 38:4807–18
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Shaver FM. 1994. The regulation of prostitution: avoiding the morality traps. Can. J. Law Soc. 9:1123–45
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Shelton JN, Richeson JA, Salvatore J, Trawalter S 2005. Ironic effects of racial bias during interracial interactions. Psychol. Sci. 16:5397–402
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Sidanius J, Pratto F. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  145. Siddle BK. 1995. Sharpening the Warrior's Edge: The Psychology & Science of Training London: Atlantic Books, 1st ed..
  146. Sim J, Correll J, Sadler M 2013. Understanding police and expert performance: when training attenuates (versus exacerbates) stereotypic bias in the decision to shoot. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 39:291–304
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Skiba RJ, Arredondo MI, Williams NT 2014. More than a metaphor: the contribution of exclusionary discipline to a school-to-prison pipeline. Equity Excell. Educ. 47:4546–64
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Smith RJ, Levinson JD. 2011. The impact of implicit racial bias on the exercise of prosecutorial discretion. Seattle Univ. Law Rev. 35:795–826
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Spergel IA. 1995. The Youth Gang Problem: A Community Approach Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  150. Spohn C. 2015. Evolution of sentencing research. Criminol. Public Policy 14:2225–32
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Steele CM, Aronson J. 1995. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 69:5797–811
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Steele CM, Spencer SJ, Aronson J 2002. Contending with group image: the psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 34:379–440
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Sweeney A. 2018. Massive gang database kept by Chicago police under fire as inaccurate, outdated. Chicago Tribune Apr. 30. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/ct-met-chicago-police-gang-database-20180411-story.html
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Sweeney A, Fry P. 2018. Nearly 33,000 juveniles arrested over last two decades labeled as gang members by Chicago police. Chicago Tribune Aug. 9. https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/ct-met-chicago-police-gang-database-juveniles-20180725-story.html
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Swencionis JK, Goff PA. 2017. The psychological science of racial bias and policing. Psychol. Public Policy Law 23:4398–409
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Teahan JE. 1975. A longitudinal study of attitude shifts among black and white police officers. J. Soc. Issues 31:147–56
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Terrill W, Mastrofski SD. 2002. Situational and officer-based determinants of police coercion. Justice Q 19:2215–48
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Theriot MT. 2009. School resource officers and the criminalization of student behavior. J. Crim. Justice 37:3280–87
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Trawalter S, Richeson JA. 2006. Regulatory focus and executive function after interracial interactions. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42:3406–12
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Trinkner R, Kerrison EM, Goff PA 2019. The force of fear: police stereotype threat, self-legitimacy, and support for excessive force. Law Hum. Behav. 43:421–35
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Trinkner R, Tyler TR, Goff PA 2016. Justice from within: the relations between a procedurally just organizational climate and police organizational efficiency, endorsement of democratic policing, and officer well-being. Psychol. Public Policy Law 22:2158–72
    [Google Scholar]
  162. US Dep. Educ. Off. Civ. Rights 2014. Civil rights data collection data snapshot: school discipline Issue Brief 1, US Dep. Educ. Off. Civ. Rights Washington, DC:
  163. US Dep. Justice 2016. Identifying and preventing gender bias in law enforcement response to sexual assault and domestic violence Rep., US Dep. Justice Washington, DC:
  164. Violanti JM, Aron F. 1995. Police stressors: variations in perception among police personnel. J. Crim. Justice 23:3287–94
    [Google Scholar]
  165. Wachtel J. 1992. From morals to practice: dilemmas of control in undercover policing. Crime Law Soc. Change 18:1137–58
    [Google Scholar]
  166. Walker S, Katz MC. 2017. The Police in America: An Introduction Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill Educ, 9th ed..
  167. Wheeler ME, Fiske ST. 2005. Controlling racial prejudice: social-cognitive goals affect amygdala and stereotype activation. Psychol. Sci. 16:156–63
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Wicker AW. 1969. Attitudes versus actions: the relationship of verbal and overt behavioral responses to attitude objects. J. Soc. Issues 25:41–78
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Wilkins VM, Williams BN. 2008. Black or blue: racial profiling and representative bureaucracy. Public Adm. Rev. 68:654–64
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Williamson C, Baker L, Jenkins M, Cluse-Tolar T 2007. Police-prostitute interactions: sometimes discretion, sometimes misconduct. J. Progress. Hum. Serv. 18:215–37
    [Google Scholar]
  171. Willis JJ, Mastrofski SD, Kochel TR 2010. The co-implementation of Compstat and community policing. J. Crim. Justice 38:5969–80
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Woolington R. 2013. Suspect who fired Beaverton sergeant's gun stated, “I'm going to kill you,” before fight, records say. The Oregonian Aug. 5. https://www.oregonlive.com/beaverton/2013/08/suspect_who_fired_beaverton_se.html
    [Google Scholar]
  173. Wright RF. 2006. Federal or state—sorting as a sentencing choice sentencing symposium. Crim. Justice 21:16–21
    [Google Scholar]
  174. Zatz MS. 1987. The changing forms of racial/ethnic biases in sentencing. J. Res. Crime Delinq. 24:169–92
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042633
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error