1932

Abstract

Persistence in and timely disengagement from personal goals are core components of successful self-regulation and therefore relevant to well-being and performance. In the history of motivation psychology, there has been a clear emphasis on persistence. Only recently have researchers become interested in goal disengagement, as mirrored by the amount of pertinent research. In this review, we present an overview of the most influential motivational theories on persistence and disengagement that address situational and personal determinants, cognitive and affective mechanisms, and consequences for well-being, health, and performance. Some of these theories use a general approach, whereas others focus on individual differences. The theories presented incorporate classical expectancy-value constructs as well as contemporary volitional concepts of self-regulation. Many of the theoretical approaches have spread to applied fields (e.g., education, work, health). Despite numerous important insights into persistence and disengagement, we also identify several unresolved research questions.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-110710
2022-01-04
2024-04-24
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/73/1/annurev-psych-020821-110710.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-110710&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Ach N. 1935. Analyse des Willens Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg
  2. Achtziger A, Gollwitzer PM 2018. Motivation and volition in the course of action. Motivation and Action J Heckhausen, H Heckhausen 485–527 Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Amir O, Ariely D. 2008. Resting on laurels: the effects of discrete progress markers as subgoals on task performance and preferences. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 34:51158–71
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Anderson FT, Strube MJ, McDaniel MA. 2019. Toward a better understanding of costs in prospective memory: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 145:111053–81
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Atkinson JW. 1957. Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychol. Rev. 64:6, Pt. 1359–72
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Austin JT, Vancouver JB. 1996. Goal constructs in psychology: structure, process, and content. Psychol. Bull. 120:3338–75
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bandura A. 1977. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol. Rev. 84:2191–215
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Barlow MA, Wrosch C, McGrath JJ. 2020. Goal adjustment capacities and quality of life: a meta-analytic review. J. Pers. 88:2307–23
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Battle ES. 1965. Motivational determinants of academic task persistence. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2:2209–18
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Baum JR, Locke EA. 2004. The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth. J. Appl. Psychol. 89:4587–98
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Baumann N, Kazén M, Quirin M, Koole SL. 2018. Why People Do the Things They Do: Building on Julius Kuhl's Contributions to the Psychology of Motivation and Volition Göttingen, Ger: Hogrefe
  12. Bélanger-Gravel A, Godin G, Amireault S. 2013. A meta-analytic review of the effect of implementation intentions on physical activity. Health Psychol. Rev. 7:123–54
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Berkman ET, Hutcherson CA, Livingston JL, Kahn LE, Inzlicht M. 2017. Self-control as value-based choice. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 26:5422–28
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bettschart M, Herrmann M, Wolf BM, Brandstätter V. 2019. The seed of goal-related doubts: a longitudinal investigation of the roles of failure and expectation of success among police trainee applicants. Front. Psychol. 10:2151
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bettschart M, Wolf BM, Herrmann M, Brandstätter V. 2021. Age-related development of self-regulation: evidence on stability and change in action orientation. J. Res. Pers. 91:104063
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Birk MV, Mandryk RL, Baumann N. 2020. Just a click away: Action-state orientation moderates the impact of task interruptions on initiative. J. Pers. 88:2373–90
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Blackwell LS, Trzesniewski KH, Dweck CS. 2007. Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: a longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Dev 78:1246–63
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Boerner K. 2004. Adaptation to disability among middle-aged and older adults: the role of assimilative and accommodative coping. J. Gerontol. 59:135–42
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Brandtstädter J, Renner G. 1990. Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping. Psychol. Aging 5:158–67
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Brandtstädter J, Rothermund K. 2002. The life-course dynamics of goal pursuit and goal adjustment: a two-process framework. Dev. Rev. 22:1117–50
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Brandstätter V, Frank E. 2002. Effects of deliberative and implemental mindsets on persistence in goal-directed behavior. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28:101366–78
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Brandstätter V, Herrmann M, Schüler J. 2013. The struggle of giving up personal goals: affective, physiological, and cognitive consequences of an action crisis. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 39:121668–82
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Brandstätter V, Schüler J. 2013. Action crisis and cost-benefit thinking: a cognitive analysis of a goal-disengagement phase. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 49:3543–53
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Braver TS, Krug MK, Chiew KS, Kool W, Westbrook JA et al. 2014. Mechanisms of motivation-cognition interaction: challenges and opportunities. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 14:2443–72
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Brehm JW, Self EA. 1989. The intensity of motivation. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 40:109–31
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Brinkmann K, Gendolla GHE. 2008. Does depression interfere with effort mobilization? Effects of dysphoria and task difficulty on cardiovascular response. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 94:1146–57
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Brockner J, Rubin JZ. 1985. Entrapment in Escalating Conflicts: A Social Psychological Analysis New York: Springer
  28. Burgoyne AP, Hambrick DZ, Macnamara BN. 2020. How firm are the foundations of mind-set theory? The claims appear stronger than the evidence.. Psychol. Sci. 31:3258–67
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Burnette JL. 2010. Implicit theories of body weight: Entity beliefs can weigh you down. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 36:3410–22
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Burnette JL, O'Boyle EH, VanEpps EM, Pollack JM, Finkel EJ 2013. Mind-sets matter: a meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. Psychol. Bull. 139:3655–701
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Carver CS, Scheier MF. 1982. Control theory: a useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychol. Bull. 92:1111–35
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Castonguay AL, Wrosch C, Sabiston CM. 2017. The roles of negative affect and goal adjustment capacities in breast cancer survivors: associations with physical activity and diurnal cortisol secretion. Health Psychol 36:4320–31
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Credé M, Tynan MC, Harms PD. 2017. Much ado about grit: a meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 113:3492–511
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Cross A, Sheffield D. 2019. Mental contrasting for health behaviour change: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effects and moderator variables. Health Psychol. Rev. 13:2209–25
    [Google Scholar]
  35. da Silva MAV, São-João TM, Brizon VC, Franco DH, Mialhe FL. 2018. Impact of implementation intentions on physical activity practice in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. PLOS ONE 13:11e0206294
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Diefendorff JM. 2004. Examination of the roles of action-state orientation and goal orientation in the goal-setting and performance process. Hum. Perform. 17:4375–95
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Disabato DJ, Goodman FR, Kashdan TB. 2019. Is grit relevant to well-being and strengths? Evidence across the globe for separating perseverance of effort and consistency of interests. J. Pers. 87:2194–211
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Duckworth AL, Peterson C, Matthews MD, Kelly DR. 2007. Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 92:61087–101
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Dweck CS. 2007. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success New York: Random House
  40. Dweck CS 2012. Implicit theories. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology 2 PAM Van Lange, AW Kruglanski, ET Higgins 23–42 London: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Dweck CS, Leggett EL. 1988. A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychol. Rev. 95:2256–73
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Dweck CS, Yeager DS. 2019. Mindsets: a view from two eras. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 14:3481–96Overview of research on mindset theory over the course of two eras.
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Emmons RA. 1992. Abstract versus concrete goals: personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 62:2292–300
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Eskreis-Winkler L, Shulman EP, Beal SA, Duckworth AL. 2014. The grit effect: predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Front. Psychol. 5:36
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Feather NT. 1962. The study of persistence. Psychol. Bull. 59:294–115
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Fishbach A, Dhar R. 2005. Goals as excuses or guides: the liberating effect of perceived goal progress on choice. J. Consum. Res. 32:3370–77
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Fishbach A, Eyal T, Finkelstein SR. 2010. How positive and negative feedback motivate goal pursuit. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 4:8517–30
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Fishbach A, Finkelstein SR. 2012. How feedback influences persistence, disengagement, and change in goal pursuit. Frontiers of Social Psychology: Goal-Directed Behavior 1 H Aarts, A Elliot 203–30 London: Psychol. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Fishbach A, Koo M, Finkelstein SR 2014. Motivation resulting from completed and missing actions. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol 50:257–307Review of research on the dynamics of self-regulation.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Fishbach A, Zhang Y, Koo M. 2009. The dynamics of self-regulation. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 20:1315–44
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Gendolla GHE, Wright RA, Richter M 2012. Effort intensity: some insights from the cardiovascular system. The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation RM Ryan 420–38 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Ghassemi M, Bernecker K, Herrmann M, Brandstätter V. 2017. The process of disengagement from personal goals: reciprocal influences between the experience of action crisis and appraisals of goal desirability and attainability. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 43:4524–37
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Ghassemi M, Wolf BM, Bettschart M, Kreibich A, Herrmann M, Brandstätter V. 2021. The dynamics of doubt: short-term fluctuations and predictors of doubts in personal goal pursuit. Motiv. Sci 7:215364
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Gillison FB, Rouse P, Standage M, Sebire SJ, Ryan RM. 2019. A meta-analysis of techniques to promote motivation for health behaviour change from a self-determination theory perspective. Health Psychol. Rev. 13:1110–30
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Gollwitzer PM 2012. Mindset theory of action phases. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology PAM Van Lange, AW Kruglanski, ET Higgins 526–45 London: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P. 2006. Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 38:69–119
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Haase CM, Heckhausen J, Silbereisen RK. 2012. The interplay of occupational motivation and well-being during the transition from university to work. Dev. Psychol. 48:61739–51
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Haase CM, Singer T, Silbereisen RK, Heckhausen J, Wrosch C. 2021. Well-being as a resource for goal reengagement: evidence from two longitudinal studies. Motiv. Sci. 7:121–31
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Hagger MS, Luszczynska A, de Wit J, Benyamini Y, Burkert S et al. 2016. Implementation intention and planning interventions in Health Psychology: recommendations from the Synergy Expert Group for research and practice. Psychol. Health 31:7814–39
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Hajek A, König H-H. 2020. The moderating role of flexible goal adjustment in the link between pain and depressive symptoms: findings based on a nationally representative sample of older adults. Psychogeriatrics 20:5602–7
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Hall NC, Chipperfield JG, Heckhausen J, Perry RP. 2010. Control striving in older adults with serious health problems: a 9-year longitudinal study of survival, health, and well-being. Psychol. Aging 25:2432–45
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Hardre PL, Reeve J. 2003. A motivational model of rural students’ intentions to persist in, versus drop out of, high school. J. Educ. Psychol. 95:2347–56
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Heckhausen H, Gollwitzer PM. 1987. Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motiv. Emot. 11:2101–20
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Heckhausen H, Kuhl J 1985. From wishes to action: the dead ends and short cuts on the long way to action. Goal-Directed Behavior: Psychological Theory and Research on Action M Frese, J Sabini 134–60 Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Heckhausen J. 2000. Evolutionary perspectives on human motivation. Am. Behav. Sci. 43:61015–29
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Heckhausen J, Buchmann M. 2019. A multi-disciplinary model of life-course canalization and agency. Adv. Life Course Res. 41:100246
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Heckhausen J, Heckhausen H 2018. Introduction and overview. Motivation and Action J Heckhausen, H Heckhausen 1–14 New York: Springer, 3rd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Heckhausen J, Wrosch C, Fleeson W. 2001. Developmental regulation before and after a developmental deadline: the sample case of “biological clock” for childbearing. Psychol. Aging 16:3400–13
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Heckhausen J, Wrosch C, Schulz R. 2010. A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychol. Rev 117:132–60A comprehensive review on motivational processes across the life span.
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Heckhausen J, Wrosch C, Schulz R. 2019. Agency and motivation in adulthood and old age. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 70:191–217
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Henderson MD, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G. 2007. Implementation intentions and disengagement from a failing course of action. J. Behav. Decis. Mak. 20:181–102
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Hennecke M, Brandstätter V 2017. Means, ends, and happiness: the role of goals for subjective well-being. The Happy Mind: Cognitive Contributions to Well-Being MD Robinson, M Eid 235–51 New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Hennecke M, Czikmantori T, Brandstätter V. 2019. Doing despite disliking: self-regulatory strategies in everyday aversive activities. Eur. J. Pers. 33:104–28
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Hennecke M, Freund AM. 2016. Age, action orientation, and self-regulation during the pursuit of a dieting goal. Appl. Psychol. Heal. Well-Being 8:119–43
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Herrmann M, Baur V, Brandstätter V, Hänggi J, Jäncke L. 2014. Being in two minds: the neural basis of experiencing action crises in personal long-term goals. Soc. Neurosci. 9:6548–61
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Herrmann M, Brandstätter V. 2013. Overcoming action crises in personal goals: longitudinal evidence on a mediating mechanism between action orientation and well-being. J. Res. Pers. 47:6881–93
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Herrmann M, Brandstätter V. 2015. Action crises and goal disengagement: longitudinal evidence on the predictive validity of a motivational phase in goal striving. Motiv. Sci. 1:2121–36
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Herrmann M, Brandstätter V, Wrosch C. 2019. Downgrading goal-relevant resources in action crises: the moderating role of goal reengagement capacities and effects on well-being. Motiv. Emot. 43:4535–53
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Higgins ET. 1987. Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychol. Rev. 94:3319–40
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Hochanadel A, Finamore D. 2015. Fixed and growth mindset in education and how grit helps students persist in the face of adversity. J. Int. Educ. Res. 11:147–50
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Holding AC, Hope NH, Harvey B, Marion Jetten AS, Koestner R 2017. Stuck in limbo: motivational antecedents and consequences of experiencing action crises in personal goal pursuit. J. Pers. 85:6893–905
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Hommel B. 2015. Between persistence and flexibility: the yin and yang of action control. Adv. Motiv. Sci. 2:33–67
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Hong Y, Chiu C, Dweck CS, Lin DM-S, Wan W 1999. Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: a meaning system approach. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 77:3588–99
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Hoyle RH, Davisson EK 2016. Varieties of self-control and their personality correlates. Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications KD Vohs, RF Baumeister 396–413 New York: Guilford
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Inzlicht M, Werner KM, Briskin JL, Roberts BW. 2020. Integrating models of self-regulation. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 72:319–45
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Jobin J, Wrosch C. 2016. Goal disengagement capacities and severity of disease across older adulthood: the sample case of the common cold. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 40:2137–44
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Jostmann NB, Koole SL 2009. When persistence is futile: a functional analysis of action orientation and goal disengagement. The Psychology of Goals GB Moskowitz, H Grant 337–61 New York: Guilford
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Kalia V, Fuesting M, Cody M. 2019. Perseverance in solving Sudoku: role of grit and cognitive flexibility in problem solving. J. Cogn. Psychol. 31:3370–78
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Kalia V, Thomas R, Osowski K, Drew A. 2018. Staying alert? Neural correlates of the association between grit and attention networks. Front. Psychol 9:1377
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Kaschel R, Kazén M, Kuhl J. 2017. State orientation and memory load impair prospective memory performance in older compared to younger persons. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 24:4453–69
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Kazén M, Kaschel R, Kuhl J. 2008. Individual differences in intention initiation under demanding conditions: interactive effects of state versus action orientation and enactment difficulty. J. Res. Pers. 42:3693–715
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Kazén M, Quirin M 2018. The integration of motivation and volition in Personality Systems Interactions (PSI) theory. Why People Do the Things They Do: Building on Julius Kuhl's Contributions to the Psychology of Motivation and Volition N Baumann, M Kazén, M Quirin, SL Koole 15–30 Göttingen, Ger: Hogrefe
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Keller L, Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P 2020. Changing behavior using the model of action phases. The Handbook of Behavior Change MS Hagger, LD Cameron, K Hamilton, N Hankonen, T Lintunen 77–88 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. PressA recent overview on the action phase model.
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Khany R, Amiri M. 2018. Action control, L2 motivational self system, and motivated learning behavior in a foreign language learning context. Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 33:2337–53
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Klinger E. 1975. Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. Psychol. Rev. 82:11–25
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Klinger E. 1977. Meaning and Void: Inner Experiences and the Incentives in People's Lives Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
  97. Klug HJP, Maier GW. 2015. Linking goal progress and subjective well-being: a meta-analysis. J. Happiness Stud. 16:37–65
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Koo M, Fishbach A. 2008. Dynamics of self-regulation: how (un)accomplished goal actions affect motivation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 94:2183–95
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Koole SL, Schlinkert CS, Maldei T, Baumann N. 2019. Becoming who you are: an integrative review of self-determination theory and personality systems interactions theory. J. Pers. 87:115–36
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Koppe K, Rothermund K. 2017. Let it go: Depression facilitates disengagement from unattainable goals. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 54:278–84
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Kruglanski AW, Shah JY, Fishbach A, Friedman R, Chun WY, Sleeth-Keppler D. 2002. A theory of goal systems. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 34:331–78
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Kuhl J 1985. Volitional mediators of cognition-behavior consistency: self-regulatory processes and action versus state orientation. Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior J Kuhl, J Beckmann 101–28 Berlin: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Kuhl J 1994. Action versus state orientation: psychometric properties of the Action Control Scale (ACS- 90). Volition and Personality: Action Versus State Orientation J Kuhl, J Beckmann 47–59 Göttingen, Ger: Hogrefe
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Kuhl J 2000. A functional-design approach to motivation and self-regulation: the dynamics of personality systems interactions. Handbook of Self-Regulation M Boekaerts, PR Pintrick, M Zeidner 111–69 San Diego: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Kuhl J 2018. Individual differences in self-regulation. Motivation and Action J Heckhausen, H Heckhausen 529–77 New York: Springer, 3rd ed..An easy-to-read chapter on the complexities of personality systems interactions (PSI) theory.
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Kuhl J, Quirin M, Koole S. 2021. The functional architecture of human motivation: personality systems interactions theory. Advances in Motivation Science, Vol. 8 AJ Elliot 1–62 Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1st ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Kurzban R, Duckworth A, Kable JW, Myers J. 2013. An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behav. Brain Sci. 36:6661–726
    [Google Scholar]
  108. LaPorte RE, Nath R. 1976. Role of performance goals in prose learning. J. Educ. Psychol. 68:3260–64
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Legrand E, Bieleke M, Gollwitzer PM, Mignon A 2017. Nothing will stop me? Flexibly tenacious goal striving with implementation intentions. Motiv. Sci. 3:2101–18
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Lessing N, Kappes C, Greve W, Mähler C. 2019. Developmental conditions of accommodative coping in childhood: the role of executive functions. Cogn. Dev. 50:56–65
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Lewin K. 1926. Vorsatz, Wille und Bedürfnis. Psychol. Forsch. 7:1330–85
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Li Y, Bates TC. 2019. You can't change your basic ability, but you work at things, and that's how we get hard things done: testing the role of growth mindset on response to setbacks, educational attainment, and cognitive ability. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 148:91640–55
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Locke EA, Latham GP. 1990. A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall
  114. Locke EA, Latham GP. 2015. Breaking the rules: a historical overview of goal-setting theory. Adv. Motiv. Sci. 2:99–126
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Lucas GM, Gratch J, Cheng L, Marsella S. 2015. When the going gets tough: Grit predicts costly perseverance. J. Res. Pers. 59:15–22
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Lucca K, Sommerville JA. 2018. The little engine that can: Infants’ persistence matters. Trends Cogn. Sci. 22:11965–68
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Magalhães P, White KG. 2016. The sunk cost effect across species: a review of persistence in a course of action due to prior investment. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 105:3339–61
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Malaguti A, Ciocanel O, Sani F, Dillon JF, Eriksen A, Power K. 2020. Effectiveness of the use of implementation intentions on reduction of substance use: a meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 214:108120
    [Google Scholar]
  119. McCormick A, Meijen C, Marcora S. 2015. Psychological determinants of whole-body endurance performance. Sports Med 45:7997–1015
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Mees U, Schmitt A. 2008. Goals of action and emotional reasons for action: a modern version of the theory of ultimate psychological hedonism. J. Theory Soc. Behav. 38:2157–78
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Mens MG, Scheier MF, Wrosch C 2016. Goal adjustment theory. The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging S Krauss Whitbourne 1–5 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1st ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Miele DB, Finn B, Molden DC. 2011. Does easily learned mean easily remembered? It depends on your beliefs about intelligence. Psychol. Sci 22:3320–24
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Molden DC, Dweck CS. 2006. Finding “meaning” in psychology: a lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. Am. Psychol. 61:3192–203
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Moshontz H, Hoyle RH. 2021. Resisting, recognizing, and returning: a three-component model and review of persistence in episodic goals. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 15:e12576An integrative review of theory and research on goal persistence.
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Mrazek AJ, Ihm ED, Molden DC, Mrazek MD, Zedelius CM, Schooler JW. 2018. Expanding minds: growth mindsets of self-regulation and the influences on effort and perseverance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 79:164–80
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Muenks K, Wigfield A, Yang JS, O'Neal CR 2017. How true is grit? Assessing its relations to high school and college students’ personality characteristics, self-regulation, engagement, and achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 109:5599–620
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Náfrádi L, Nakamoto K, Schulz PJ. 2017. Is patient empowerment the key to promote adherence? A systematic review of the relationship between self-efficacy, health locus of control and medication adherence. PLOS ONE 12:10e0186458
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Nesse RM. 2000. Is depression an adaptation?. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57:114–20
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Neys JLD, Jansz J, Tan ESH. 2014. Exploring persistence in gaming: the role of self-determination and social identity. Comput. Hum. Behav. 37:196–209
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Nguyen TD, Kramer JW, Evans BJ. 2019. The effects of grant aid on student persistence and degree attainment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Rev. Educ. Res. 89:6831–74
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Ntoumanis N, Healy LC, Sedikides C, Duda J, Stewart B et al. 2014. When the going gets tough: The “why” of goal striving matters. J. Pers. 8:225–36
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Ntoumanis N, Sedikides C. 2018. Holding on to the goal or letting it go and moving on? A tripartite model of goal striving. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci 27:5363–68
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Nussbaum AD, Dweck CS. 2008. Defensiveness versus remediation: self-theories and modes of self-esteem maintenance. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 34:5599–612
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Oettingen G. 2012. Future thought and behaviour change. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 23:11–63A review of fantasy realization theory and mental contrasting with implementation intentions.
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Oettingen G, Gollwitzer PM 2018. Health behavior change by self-regulation of goal pursuit: mental contrasting with implementation intentions. The Routledge International Handbook of Self-Control in Health and Well-Being D de Ridder, M Adriaanse, K Fujita 418–30 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Oettingen G, Reininger KM. 2016. The power of prospection: mental contrasting and behavior change. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 10:11591–604
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Palfai TP. 2002. Action-state orientation and the self-regulation of eating behavior. Eat. Behav. 3:3249–59
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Renaud-Dubé A, Guay F, Talbot D, Taylor G, Koestner R. 2015. The relations between implicit intelligence beliefs, autonomous academic motivation, and school persistence intentions: a mediation model. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 18:2255–72
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Richter M. 2015. Goal pursuit and energy conservation: Energy investment increases with task demand but does not equal it. Motiv. Emot. 39:125–33
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Richter M, Gendolla GHE, Wright RA. 2016. Three decades of research on motivational intensity theory. Adv. Motiv. Sci 3:149–86Review of theoretical advancements and empirical research on motivation intensity theory over three decades.
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Robertson-Kraft C, Duckworth AL. 2014. True grit: Trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals predicts effectiveness and retention among novice teachers. Teach. Coll. Rec. 116:317352
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Robins RW, Pals JL. 2002. Implicit self-theories in the academic domain: implications for goal orientation, attributions, affect, and self-esteem change. Self Identity 1:4313–36
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Rothermund K. 2006. Hanging on and letting go in the pursuit of health goals: psychological mechanisms to cope with a regulatory dilemma. Self-Regulation in Health Behavior DTD de Ridder, JBF de Wit 217–41 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Rothermund K. 2011. Counter-regulation and control-dependency: affective processing biases in the service of action regulation. Soc. Psychol. 42:156–66
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Rothermund K, Brandtstädter J 2019. Dual process theory of assimilation and accommodation. Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging D Gu, ME Dupre Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Ryan RM, Deci EL. 2017. Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness New York: Guilford
  147. Ryan RM, Deci EL. 2019. Brick by brick: the origins, development, and future of self-determination theory. Adv. Motiv. Sci 6:111–56Overview of 40 years of research on intrinsic motivation and self-determination.
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Ryan RM, Deci EL. 2020. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 61:101860
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Schlüter C, Fraenz C, Pinnow M, Friedrich P, Güntürkün O, Genç E. 2018. The structural and functional signature of action control. Psychol. Sci. 29:101620–30
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Schoon I, Heckhausen J. 2019. Conceptualizing individual agency in the transition from school to work: a social-ecological developmental perspective. Adolesc. Res. Rev. 4:2135–48
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Schultheiss OC, Brunstein JC 2010. Implicit Motives Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  152. Silvia PJ, Eddington KM, Beaty RE, Nusbaum EC, Kwapil TR. 2013. Gritty people try harder: grit and effort-related cardiac autonomic activity during an active coping challenge. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 88:2200–5
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Sleesman DJ, Lennard AC, McNamara G, Conlon DE. 2018. Putting escalation of commitment in context: a multilevel review and analysis. Acad. Manag. Ann. 12:1178–207
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Standage M, Ryan RM 2020. Self-determination theory in sport and exercise. Handbook of Sport Psychology G Tenenbaum, RC Eklund 37–56 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 4th ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Stanek J, Richter M. 2016. Evidence against the primacy of energy conservation: exerted force in possible and impossible handgrip tasks. Motiv. Sci. 2:149–65
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Staw BM 1997. The escalation of commitment: an update and appraisal. Cambridge Series on Judgment and Decision Making: Organizational Decision Making Z Shapira 191–215 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Steel P. 2007. The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychol. Bull. 133:165–94
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Tammemagi T, O'Hora D, Maglieri KA 2013. The effects of a goal setting intervention on productivity and persistence in an analogue work task. J. Organ. Behav. Manag. 33:131–54
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Tang X, Wang M-T, Guo J, Salmela-Aro K. 2019. Building grit: the longitudinal pathways between mindset, commitment, grit, and academic outcomes. J. Youth Adolesc. 48:5850–63
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Teixeira PJ, Marques MM, Silva MN, Brunet J, Duda J et al. 2020. A classification of motivation and behavior change techniques used in self-determination theory-based interventions in health contexts. Motiv. Sci. 6:4438–55
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Thomsen T, Greve W. 2013. Accommodative coping in early adolescence: an investigation of possible developmental components. J. Adolesc. 36:5971–81
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Thürmer JL, Wieber F, Gollwitzer PM. 2017. Planning and performance in small groups: Collective implementation intentions enhance group goal striving. Front. Psychol. 8:603
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Tops M, Montero-Marin J, Quirin M. 2016. Too much of a good thing: a neuro-dynamic personality model explaining engagement and its protective inhibition. Adv. Motiv. Achiev. 19:283–319
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Van Bost G, Van Damme S, Crombez G. 2020. Goal reengagement is related to mental well-being, life satisfaction and acceptance in people with an acquired brain injury. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 30:91814–28
    [Google Scholar]
  165. van Randenborgh A, Hüffmeier J, LeMoult J, Joormann J. 2010. Letting go of unmet goals: Does self-focused rumination impair goal disengagement?. Motiv. Emot. 34:4325–32
    [Google Scholar]
  166. van Randenborgh A, Pawelzik M, Quirin M, Kuhl J. 2016. Bad roots to grow: deficient implicit self-evaluations in chronic depression with an early onset. J. Clin. Psychol. 72:6580–90
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Vann RJ, Rosa JA, McCrea SM. 2018. When consumers struggle: action crisis and its effects on problematic goal pursuit. Psychol. Mark. 35:9696–709
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Vilà I, Carrero I, Redondo R. 2017. Reducing fat intake using implementation intentions: a meta-analytic review. Br. J. Health Psychol. 22:2281–94
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Vohs KD, Park JK, Schmeichel BJ. 2013. Self-affirmation can enable goal disengagement. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 104:114–27
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Weiner B. 1985. An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychol. Rev. 92:4548–73
    [Google Scholar]
  171. Wieber F, Thürmer JL, Gollwitzer PM. 2015. Attenuating the escalation of commitment to a faltering project in decision-making groups: an implementation intention approach. Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci. 6:5587–95
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Wojdylo K, Baumann N, Kuhl J. 2017. The firepower of work craving: when self-control is burning under the rubble of self-regulation. PLOS ONE 12:1ee0169729
    [Google Scholar]
  173. Wolf BM, Herrmann M, Zubler I, Brandstätter V. 2019. Action crises in personal goals compromise recovery during physical therapy. Motiv. Sci. 5:2179–84
    [Google Scholar]
  174. Wolff W, Bieleke M, Hirsch A, Wienbruch C, Gollwitzer PM, Schüler J. 2018. Increase in prefrontal cortex oxygenation during static muscular endurance performance is modulated by self-regulation strategies. Sci. Rep. 8:14–13
    [Google Scholar]
  175. Woolley K, Fishbach A. 2016. For the fun of it: harnessing immediate rewards to increase persistence in long-term goals. J. Consum. Res. 42:6952–66
    [Google Scholar]
  176. Woolley K, Fishbach A. 2017. Immediate rewards predict adherence to long-term goals. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 43:2151–62
    [Google Scholar]
  177. Wright RA 1996. Brehm's theory of motivation as a model of effort and cardiovascular response. The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior PM Gollwitzer, JA Bargh 424–53 New York: Guilford
    [Google Scholar]
  178. Wrosch C, Amir E, Miller GE. 2011. Goal adjustment capacities, coping, and subjective well-being: the sample case of caregiving for a family member with mental illness. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 100:5934–46
    [Google Scholar]
  179. Wrosch C, Miller GE. 2009. Depressive symptoms can be useful: self-regulatory and emotional benefits of dysphoric mood in adolescence. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 96:61181–90
    [Google Scholar]
  180. Wrosch C, Miller GE, Scheier MF, De Pontet SB. 2007. Giving up on unattainable goals: benefits for health?. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 33:2251–65
    [Google Scholar]
  181. Wrosch C, Scheier MF. 2020. Adaptive self-regulation, subjective well-being, and physical health: the importance of goal adjustment capacities. Advances in Motivation Science, Vol. 7 AJ Elliot 199–238 Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1st ed..A chapter summarizing the research on individual goal adjustment tendencies.
    [Google Scholar]
  182. Wrosch C, Scheier MF, Carver CS, Schulz R. 2003. The importance of goal disengagement in adaptive self-regulation: when giving up is beneficial. Self Identity 2:11–20
    [Google Scholar]
  183. Yang LQ, Simon LS, Wang L, Zheng X 2016. To branch out or stay focused? Affective shifts differentially predict organizational citizenship behavior and task performance. J. Appl. Psychol. 101:6831–45
    [Google Scholar]
  184. Yeager DS, Dweck CS. 2020. What can be learned from growth mindset controversies?. Am. Psychol. 75:91269–84
    [Google Scholar]
  185. Yeager DS, Hanselman P, Walton GM, Murray JS, Crosnoe R et al. 2019. A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature 573:7774364–69
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-110710
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-110710
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error