1932

Abstract

A quarter of all species around the globe are threatened with extinction; this article reviews research in economics on how best to counter those threats. Normative research has developed useful tools for cost-effectively choosing areas of habitat to protect. Such work has also designed working-lands contracts that can induce efficient quantities and patterns of conservation on private lands. Positive research finds evidence that payments for ecosystem service programs are effective, but legal protections for threatened species have a mixed record of success. Economists have also measured both the nonmarket benefits and the costs of species conservation. Emerging work is tackling the particular challenges to species conservation posed by climate change, the demand for exploiting charismatic megafauna, and global population growth. Future research would do well to build on those three areas and to study distributional issues in the benefits and costs of species conservation.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-022921
2018-10-05
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/resource/10/1/annurev-resource-100517-022921.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-022921&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abbott B, van Kooten GC 2011. Can domestication of wildlife lead to conservation? The economics of tiger farming in China. Ecol. Econ. 70:721–28
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Adamowicz WL 2016. Economic analysis and species at risk: lessons learned and future challenges. Can. J. Agric. Econ. 64:21–32
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Albers HJ, Robinson EJZ 2015. Spatial economics of forest conservation. Handbook on the Economics of Natural Resources R Halvorsen, DF Layton 305–29 Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Alix-Garcia JM, Shapiro EN, Sims KRE 2012. Forest conservation and slippage: evidence from Mexico's national payments for ecosystem services program. Land Econ 88:613–38
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Alix-Garcia JM, Sims KRE, Yañez-Pagans P 2015. Only one tree from each seed? Environmental effectiveness and poverty alleviation in Mexico's payments for ecosystem services program. Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy 7:1–40
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Alston LJ, Andersson K, Smith SM 2013. Payment for environmental services: hypotheses and evidence. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ. 5:139–59
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Ando AW, Fraterrigo J, Guntenspergen G, Howlader A, Mallory M et al. 2018. When portfolio theory can help environmental investment planning to reduce climate risk to future environmental outcomes—and when it cannot. Conserv. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12596
    [Crossref]
  8. Ando AW, Mallory M 2012. Optimal portfolio design to reduce climate-related conservation uncertainty in the Prairie Pothole Region. PNAS 109:176484–89
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Ando AW, Shah P 2014. The economics of conservation and finance: a review of the literature. Int. Rev. Environ. Resour. Econ. 8:3–4321–57
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Armsworth PR, Kendall BE, Davis FW 2004. An introduction to biodiversity concepts for environmental economists. Res. Energy Econ. 26:115–36
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Arriagada RA, Ferraro PJ, Sills EO, Pattanayak SK, Cordero-Sancho S 2012. Do payments for environmental services affect forest cover? A farm-level evaluation from Costa Rica. Land Econ 88:382–99
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Arriagada RA, Sills EO, Ferraro PJ, Pattanayak SK 2015. Do payments pay off? Evidence from participation in Costa Rica's PES program. PLOS ONE 10:e0131544
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Banerjee S, Kwasnica AM, Shortle JS 2012. Agglomeration bonus in small and large local networks: a laboratory examination of spatial coordination. Ecol. Econ. 84:142–52
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Barbier EB 2012. Progress and challenges in valuing coastal and marine ecosystem services. Rev. Env. Econ. Policy 6:11–19
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Barbier EB, Hacker SD, Kennedy C, Koch EW, Stier AC, Silliman BR 2011. The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol. Monog. 81:2169–93
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bartkowski B, Lienhoop N, Hansjürgens B 2015. Capturing the complexity of biodiversity: a critical review of economic valuation studies of biological diversity. Ecol. Econ. 113:1–14
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bauer DM, Paton PWC, Swallow SK 2010.a Are wetland regulations cost effective for species protection? A case study of amphibian metapopulations. Ecol. Appl. 20:3798–815
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bauer DM, Swallow SK, Paton PWC 2010.b Cost-effective species conservation in exurban communities: a spatial analysis. Resour. Energy Econ. 32:2180–202
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bednar-Friedl B, Behrens DA, Getzner M 2012. Optimal dynamic control of visitors and endangered species in a national park. Environ. Resour. Econ. 52:11–22
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Ben Abdallah S, Lasserre P 2012. A real option approach to the protection of a habitat dependent endangered species. Resour. Energy Econ. 34:3295–318
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Bode M, Tulloch AI, Mills M, Venter O, Ando AW 2015. A conservation planning approach to mitigate the impacts of leakage from protected area networks. Conserv. Biol. 29:3765–774
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Boskovic B, Nostbakken L 2017. The cost of endangered species protection: evidence from auctions for natural resources. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 81:174–92
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Bottrill MC, Walsh JC, Watson JEM, Joseph LN, Ortega-Argueta A et al. 2011. Does recovery planning improve the status of threatened species. ? Biol. Conserv. 144:1595–1601
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Boxall PC, Adamowicz WL, Olar M, West GE, Cantin G 2012. Analysis of the economic benefits associated with the recovery of threatened marine mammal species in the Canadian St. Lawrence Estuary. Mar. Policy 36:189–97
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Boyd J, Epanchin-Niell R, Siikamäki J 2015. Conservation planning: a review of return on investment analysis. Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy 9:123–42
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Brander LM, Raymond JG, Florax M, Vermaat JE 2006. The empirics of wetland valuation: a comprehensive summary and a meta-analysis of the literature. Environ. Res. Econ. 33:2223–50
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Busch J 2013. Supplementing REDD+ with biodiversity payments: the paradox of paying for multiple ecosystem services. Land Econ 89:655–75
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Carvalho SB, Brito JC, Crespo EG, Watts ME, Possingham HP 2011. Conservation planning under climate change: toward accounting for uncertainty in predicted species distributions to increase confidence in conservation investments in space and time. Biol. Conserv. 144:2020–30
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Chang H, Lambert DM, Mishra AK 2008. Does participation in the conservation reserve program impact the economic well-being of farm households. ? Agric. Econ. 38:201–12
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Chisholm RA 2010. Trade-offs between ecosystem services: water and carbon in a biodiversity hotspot. Ecol. Econ. 69:101973–87
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Cohen JE 2003. Human population: the next half century. Science 302:56481172–75
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Conrad JM, Lopes AA 2017. Poaching and the dynamics of a protected species. Resour. Energy Econ. 48:55–67
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Costa LP, Leite YLR, Mendes SL, Ditchfield AD 2005. Mammal conservation in Brazil. Conserv. Biol. 19:3672–79
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Damania R, Bulte EH 2007. The economics of wildlife farming and endangered species conservation. Ecol. Econ. 62:461–72
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Dawson D, Shogren J 2001. An update on priorities and expenditures under the Endangered Species Act. Land Econ 77:4527–32
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Day M, Balduf C, Rutishauser E, Sunderland TCH 2014. Relationships between tree species diversity and above-ground biomass in Central African rainforests: implications for REDD. Environ. Conserv. 41:164–72
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Dissanayake STM, Ando AW 2014. Valuing grassland restoration: proximity to substitutes and trade-offs among conservation attributes. Land Econ 90:237–59
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Drechsler M, Wätzold F, Johst K, Shogren JF 2010. An agglomeration payment for cost-effective biodiversity conservation in spatially structured landscapes. Resour. Energy Econ. 32:2261–75
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Dupraz P, Latouche K, Turpin N 2009. Threshold effect and co-ordination of agri-environmental efforts. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 52:5613–30
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Engel S, Pagiola S, Wunder S 2008. Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice: an overview of the issues. Ecol. Econ. 65:4663–74
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Epanchin-Niell RS, Wilen JE 2014. Individual and cooperative management of invasive species in human-mediated landscapes. Amer. J. Agric. Econ. 97:1180–98
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Favaro B, Claar DC, Fox CH, Freshwater C, Holden JJ et al. 2014. Trends in extinction risk for imperiled species in Canada. PLOS ONE 9:e113118
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Fenichel EP, Richards TJ, Shanafelt DW 2014. The control of invasive species on private property with neighbor-to-neighbor spillovers. Environ. Resour. Econ. 59:2231–55
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Ferraro PJ 2008. Asymmetric information and contract design for payments for environmental services. Ecol. Econ. 65:4810–21
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Ferraro PJ, Hanauer MM 2011. Protecting ecosystems and alleviating poverty with parks and reserves: ‘Win-win’ or tradeoffs. ? Environ. Resour. Econ. 48:269–86
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Fischer C, Muchapondwa E, Sterner T 2011. A bio-economic model of community incentives for wildlife management under CAMPFIRE. Environ. Resour. Econ. 48:303–19
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS et al. 2011. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478:7369337–42
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Gehrt SD, Riley SPD, Cypher BL 2010. Urban Carnivores: Ecology, Conflict, and Conservation Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
  49. Goddard MA, Dougill AJ, Benton TG 2010. Scaling up from gardens: biodiversity conservation in urban environments. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25:290–98
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Goldman RL, Thompson BH, Daily GC 2007. Institutional incentives for managing the landscape: inducing cooperation for the production of ecosystem services. Ecol. Econ. 64:2333–43
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Groves CR, Game ET, Anderson MG, Cross M, Enquist C et al. 2012. Incorporating climate change into systematic conservation planning. Biodivers. Conserv. 21:1651–71
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Gurevitch J, Padilla DK 2004. Are invasive species a major cause of extinctions. ? Trends Ecol. Evol. 19:9470–74
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hanley N, Banerjee S, Lennox GD, Armsworth PR 2012. How should we incentivize private landowners to ‘produce’ more biodiversity. ? Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy 28:193–113
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Harvey CA, Dickson B, Kormos C 2010. Opportunities for achieving biodiversity conservation through REDD. Conserv. Lett. 3:153–61
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Heal GM, Barbier EB, Boyle KJ, Covich AP, Gloss SP et al. 2005. Valuing Ecosystem Services: Toward Better Environmental Decision Making Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  56. Herzon I, Helenius J 2008. Agricultural drainage ditches, their biological importance and functioning. Biol. Conserv. 141:51171–83
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Horan RD, Fenichel EP, Melstrom RT 2011. Wildlife disease bioeconomics. Int. Rev. Environ. Resour. Econ. 5:123–61
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Hughes L 2000. Biological consequences of global warming: Is the signal already apparent. ? Trends Ecol. Evol. 15:256–61
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Innes R, Frisvold G 2009. The economics of endangered species. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ. 1:485–512
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Jennings V, Gaither CJ, Gragg RS 2012. Promoting environmental justice through urban green space access: a synopsis. Environ. Justice 5:11–7
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jiang Y, Swallow SK 2017. Impact fees coupled with conservation payments to sustain ecosystem structure: a conceptual and numerical application at the urban-rural fringe. Ecol. Econ. 136:136–47
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Johannesen AB, Skonhoft A 2005. Tourism, poaching and wildlife conservation: What can integrated conservation and development projects accomplish. ? Resour. Energy Econ. 27:208–26
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Johnston RJ, Jarvis D, Wallmo K, Lew DK 2015. Multiscale spatial pattern in nonuse willingness to pay: applications to threatened and endangered marine species. Land Econ 91:739–61
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kareiva P, Marvier M 2012. What is conservation science. ? BioScience 62:11962–69
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Kattwinkel M, Biedermann R, Kleyer M 2011. Temporary conservation for urban biodiversity. Biol. Conserv. 144:92335–43
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Kolstoe S, Cameron TA 2017. The non-market value of birding sites and the marginal value of additional species: biodiversity in a random utility model of site choice by eBird members. Ecol. Econ. 137:1–12
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Kontoleon A, Swanson T 2003. The willingness to pay for property rights for the giant panda: Can a charismatic species be an instrument for nature conservation. ? Land Econ 79:4483–99
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Kujala H, Moilanen A, Araujo MB, Cabeza M 2013. Conservation planning with uncertain climate change projections. PLOS ONE 8:2e53315
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Langpap C 2006. Conservation of endangered species: Can incentives work for private landowners. ? Ecol. Econ. 57:4558–72
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Langpap C, Kerkvliet J, Shogren JF 2018. The economics of the U.S. Endangered Species Act: a review of recent developments. Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy 12:69–91
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Langpap C, Wu JJ 2017. Thresholds, perverse incentives, and preemptive conservation of endangered species. J. Assoc. Environ. Resour. Econ. 4:S227–59
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Lawler JJ, Lewis DJ, Nelson E, Plantinga AJ, Polasky S et al. 2014. Projected land-use change impacts on ecosystem services in the United States. PNAS 111:207492–97
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lawley C, Towe C 2014. Capitalized costs of habitat conservation easements. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 96:657–72
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Lehtinen RM, Ramanamanjato JB, Raveloarison JG 2003. Edge effects and extinction proneness in a herpetofauna from Madagascar. Biodivers. Conserv. 12:71357–70
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lepczyk CA, Warren PS 2012. Urban Bird Ecology and Conservation Oakland, CA: Univ. Calif. Press
  76. Lew DK, Wallmo K 2011. External tests of scope and embedding in stated preference choice experiments: an application to endangered species valuation. Environ. Resour. Econ. 48:1–23
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lew DK, Wallmo K 2017. Temporal stability of stated preferences for endangered species protection from choice experiments. Ecol. Econ. 131:87–97
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Lewis DJ, Plantinga AJ, Nelson E, Polasky S 2011. The efficiency of voluntary incentive policies for preventing biodiversity loss. Resour. Energy Econ. 33:1192–211
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Lewis DJ, Wu JJ 2015. Land-use patterns and spatially dependent ecosystem services: some microeconomic foundations. Int. Rev. Environ. Resour. Econ. 8:2191–223
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Lin BB, Philpott SM, Jha S 2015. The future of urban agriculture and biodiversity-ecosystem services: challenges and next steps. Basic Appl. Ecol. 16:3189–201
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Liu Y, Sims C 2016. Spatial-dynamic externalities and coordination in invasive species control. Resour. Energy Econ. 44:23–38
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Lyons JA, Natusch JD 2013. Effects of consumer preferences for rarity on the harvest of wild populations within a species. Ecol. Econ. 93:278–83
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Martinuzzi S, Januchowski‐Hartley SR, Pracheil BM, McIntyre PB, Plantinga AJ et al. 2014. Threats and opportunities for freshwater conservation under future land use change scenarios in the United States. Glob. Change Biol. 20:1113–24
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Mason CF, Bulte EH, Horan RD 2012. Banking on extinction: endangered species and speculation. Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy 28:180–92
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Mawdsley JR, O'Malley R, Ojima DS 2009. A review of climate-change adaptation strategies for wildlife management and biodiversity conservation. Conserv. Biol. 23:51080–89
    [Google Scholar]
  86. McCleery RA, Moorman C, Peterson MN 2014. Urban Wildlife Conservation: Theory and Practice New York: Springer
  87. McConnell V, Walls M 2009. U.S. experience with transferable development rights. Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy 3:2288–303
    [Google Scholar]
  88. McDonald JA, Carwardine J, Joseph LN, Klein CJ, Rout TM et al. 2015. Improving policy efficiency and effectiveness to save more species: a case study of the megadiverse country Australia. Biol. Conserv. 182:102–8
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Melstrom RT, Horan RD 2014. Interspecies management and land use strategies to protect endangered species. Environ. Resour. Econ. 58:2199–218
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Metrick A, Weitzman ML 1998. Conflicts and choices in biodiversity preservation. J. Econ. Persp. 12:321–34
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Miteva DA, Pattanayak SK, Ferraro PJ 2012. Evaluation of biodiversity policy instruments: What works and what doesn't. ? Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy 28:69–92
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Moilanen A, Wintle BA, Elith J, Burgman M 2006. Uncertainty analysis for regional-scale reserve selection. Conserv. Biol. 20:61688–97
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Mooers AO, Doak DF, Findlay CS, Green DM, Grouios C et al. 2010. Science, policy, and species at risk in Canada. Bioscience 60:843–49
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Needelman B, Crooks S, Hawkes JE, Shumway C, Titus JG et al. 2012. Restore-adapt-mitigate: responding to climate change through coastal habitat restoration Rep Restore Am. Estuar. Arlington, VA: https://www.estuaries.org/images/stories/RAE_Restore-Adapt-Mitigate_Climate-Chg-Report.pdf
  95. Newbold SC, Siikamäki J 2015. Conservation prioritization using reserve site selection methods. Handbook on the Economics of Natural Resources R Halvorsen, DF Layton 358–400 Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Palm-Forster LH, Swinton SM, Redder TM, DePinto JV, Boles CM 2016. Using conservation auctions informed by environmental performance models to reduce agricultural nutrient flows into Lake Erie. J. Great Lakes Res. 42:61357–71
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Parkhurst GM, Shogren JF 2007. Spatial incentives to coordinate contiguous habitat. Ecol. Econ. 64:2344–55
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Parkhurst GM, Shogren JF, Crocker T 2016. Tradable set-aside requirements (TSARs): conserving spatially dependent environmental amenities. Environ. Resour. Econ. 63:4719–44
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Parmesan C, Yohe F 2003. A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421:691837–42
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Pattanayak SK, Wunder S, Ferraro PJ 2010. Show me the money: Do payments supply environmental services in developing countries. ? Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy 4:254–74
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Phelps J, Friess DA, Webb EL 2012. Win-win REDD+ approaches belie carbon-biodiversity trade-offs. Biol. Conserv. 154:53–60
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Polasky S, Carpenter SR, Folke C, Keeler B 2011. Decision-making under great uncertainty: environmental management in an era of global change. Trends Ecol. Evol. 26:8398–404
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Polasky S, Lewis DJ, Plantinga AJ, Nelson E 2014. Implementing the optimal provision of ecosystem services. PNAS 111:176248–53
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Ramler JP, Hebblewhite M, Kellenberg D, Sime C 2014. Crying wolf? A spatial analysis of wolf location and depredations on calf weight. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 96:631–56
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Reeson AF, Rodriguez LC, Whitten SM, Williams K, Nolles K et al. 2011. Adapting auctions for the provision of ecosystem services at the landscape scale. Ecol. Econ. 70:91621–27
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Rentsch D, Damon A 2013. Prices, poaching, and protein alternatives: an analysis of bushmeat consumption around Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Ecol. Econ. 91:1–9
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Richardson L, Loomis J 2009. The total economic value of threatened, endangered and rare species: an updated meta-analysis. Ecol. Econ. 68:1535–48
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Robalino J, Pfaff A 2013. Ecopayments and deforestation in Costa Rica: a nationwide analysis of PSA's initial years. Land Econ 89:432–48
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Robalino J, Villalobos-Fiat L 2015. Protected areas and economic welfare: an impact evaluation of national parks on local workers’ wages in Costa Rica. Environ. Dev. Econ. 20:283–310
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Rodrigues AS, Brooks TM, Butchart SH, Chanson J, Cox N et al. 2014. Spatially explicit trends in the global conservation status of vertebrates. PLOS ONE 9:11e113934
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Rondeau D, Bulte E 2007. Wildlife damage and agriculture: a dynamic analysis of compensation schemes. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 89:490–507
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Rudd H, Vala J, Schaefer V 2002. Importance of backyard habitat in a comprehensive biodiversity conservation strategy: a connectivity analysis of urban green spaces. Restor. Ecol. 10:2368–75
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Russell KN, Ikerd H, Droege S 2005. The potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees. Biol. Conserv. 124:1133–48
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Schilizzi S, Latacz-Lohmann U 2016. Incentivizing and tendering conservation contracts: the trade-off between participation and effort provision. Land Econ 92:2273–91
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Schwartz MW, Hellmann JJ, McLachlan JM, Sax DF, Borevitz JO et al. 2012. Managed relocation: integrating the scientific, regulatory, and ethical challenges. BioScience 62:8732–43
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Schwartzman S, Moreira A, Nepstad D 2000. Rethinking tropical forest conservation: perils in parks. Conserv. Biol. 14:51351–57
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Segerson K, Wu JJ 2006. Nonpoint pollution control: Inducing first-best outcomes through the use of threats. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 51:2165–84
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Shah P, Ando AW 2016. Permanent and temporary policy incentives for conservation under stochastic returns from competing land uses. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 98:41074–94
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Shirey PD, Lamberti GA 2010. Assisted colonization under the US Endangered Species Act. 2010. Conserv. Lett. 3:145–52
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Shortle JS, Horan RD 2001. The economics of nonpoint pollution control. J. Econ. Surv. 15:3255–89
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Siikamäki J, Newbold SC 2012. Potential biodiversity benefits from international programs to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation. Ambio 41:178–89
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Sims C, Finnoff D 2013. When is a “wait and see” approach to invasive species justified. ? Resour. Energy Econ. 35:3235–55
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Sims KRE 2010. Conservation and development: evidence from Thai protected areas. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 60:94–114
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Sims KRE 2014. Do protected areas reduce forest fragmentation? A microlandscapes approach. Environ. Resour. Econ. 58:303–33
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Sims KRE, Alix-Garcia JM 2017. Parks versus PES: evaluating direct and incentive-based land conservation in Mexico. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 86:8–28
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Smith RBW, Shogren JF 2002. Voluntary incentive design for endangered species protection. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 43:2169–87
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Spencer MA, Swallow SK, Shogren JF, List JA 2009. Rebate rules in threshold public good provision. J. Public Econ. 93:5798–806
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Stefanski SF, Shimshack JP 2016. Valuing marine biodiversity in the Gulf of Mexico: evidence from the proposed boundary expansion of the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. Mar. Resour. Econ. 31:211–32
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Sunding D, Terhorst J 2014. Conserving endangered species through regulation of urban development: the case of California vernal pools. Land Econ 90:2290–305
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Swallow SK 2013. Demand-side value for ecosystem services and implications for innovative markets: experimental perspectives on the possibility of private markets for public goods. Agric. Resour. Econ. Rev. 42:133–56
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Taylor MF, Sattler PS, Evans M, Fuller RA, Watson JE et al. 2011. What works for threatened species recovery? An empirical evaluation for Australia. Biodivers. Conserv. 20:4767–77
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ et al. 2004. Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427:6970145–48
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Vogt N, Reeson AF, Bizer K 2013. Communication, competition and social gift exchange in an auction for public good provision. Ecol. Econ. 93:11–19
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Voldseth RA, Johnson WC, Guntenspergen GR, Gilmanov T, Millett BV 2009. Adaptation of farming practices could buffer effects of climate change on Northern prairie wetlands. Wetlands 29:2635–47
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Wallmo K 2015. Threatened and endangered species valuation: literature review and assessment Work. Pap. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Silver Spring, MD: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237109260_Threatened_and_Endangered_Species_Valuation_Literature_Review_and_Assessment
  136. Walsh JC, Watson JEM, Bottrill MC, Joseph LN, Possingham HP 2012. Trends and biases in the listing and recovery planning for threatened species: an Australian case study. Oryx 47:134–43
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Warziniack T, Shogren JF, Parkhurst G 2007. Creating contiguous forest habitat: an experimental examination on incentives and communication. J. For. Econ. 13:2191–207
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Warziniack TW, Finnoff D, Shogren JF 2013. Public economics of hitchhiking species and tourism-based risk to ecosystem services. Resour. Energy Econ. 35:3277–94
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Watson JEM, Evans MC, Carwardine J, Fuller RA, Joseph LN et al. 2010. The capacity of Australia's protected-area system to represent threatened species. Conserv. Biol. 25:324–32
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Weitzman ML 1998. The Noah's ark problem. Econometrica 66:61279–98
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Weitzman ML 2011. Fat-tailed uncertainty in the economics of catastrophic climate change. Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy 5:2275–92
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Wendland KJ, Baumann M, Lewis DJ, Sieber A, Radeloff VC 2015. Protected area effectiveness in European Russia: a postmatching panel data analysis. Land Econ 91:149–68
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Wu JJ, Boggess WG 1999. The optimal allocation of conservation funds. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 38:302–21
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Wu JJ, Lin H 2010. The effect of the Conservation Reserve Program on land values. Land Econ 86:1–21
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-022921
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-022921
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error