The Pathophysiology of Tumor Necrosis Factors

Figure 1: Model for T cell activation following antigen recognition. (a) T cell differentiation in response to acute infection or vaccination (left) or chronic infection or cancer (right). Upon activa...

Figure 2: Three-signal model of development of T cell exhaustion. Persistent antigen (signal 1) from virus or tumor drives hyperactivation of T cells that eventually leads to sustained coexpression of...

Figure 3: Inhibitory receptors can mediate their negative regulatory effects on T cell activation and effector function via multiple mechanisms, including conventional and nonconventional signaling mo...

Figure 4: Model of epigenetic and transcriptional control of gene expression in different T cell populations. The development of high-throughput transcriptional and epigenetic technologies has reveale...

Figure 1: The life history of a cDC, from its origin in the bone marrow to its death in a lymph node. A cDC2 is depicted, but a similar path applies to cDC1s. cDCs develop from HSCs via intermediate s...

Figure 2: Mouse and human cDCpoiesis. Hematopoietic commitment pathway of cDCs in mice (blue) and humans (orange). Markers used to identify progenitor populations in mice or humans are listed in the c...

Figure 3: Activation of cDCs. cDC activation is the process by which a resting cDC becomes competent to convey information to other cells in response to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli (red box). Resti...

Figure 1: Lymphoid tissue and mucosal innervation. The major autonomic pathways that innervate lymphoid organs and mucosae are illustrated. These include two branches of the autonomic nervous system: ...

Figure 2: Neuro–immune cell units in the lung and intestine. (a) Pulmonary cholinergic neurons release NMU to stimulate ILC2s, promoting protective responses to parasites. Pulmonary sensory neurons al...

Figure 3: Neuro–immune cell units in adipose tissue and skin. (a) NE released by sympathetic neurons in the adipose tissue can be scavenged by SAMs through the NE transporter SLC6A2, possibly to preve...

Figure 1: The architecture and surroundings of the tumor microenvironment. The tumor microenvironment is composed of multiple cell types including cancer cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and var...

Figure 2: Origins and dynamics of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ exhausted T cells and CD4+ Tregs. The phenotypes of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells show great heterogeneity and can generally be categorized ...

Figure 3: Tumor-infiltrating cDCs and TAMs. (a) The fundamental properties, origin, and cross talk of LAMP3+ DCs in the tumor microenvironment. LAMP3+ DCs are characterized by downregulation of both c...

Figure 4: Emerging paradigms of different CD8+ and CD4+ T cell subsets shaping patient responses to immunotherapies. For CD8+ T cells, the balance between preexhausted and terminally exhausted T cells...

Figure 1: Trained immunity versus tolerance. Microbial or endogenous stimuli (stimulus A) can activate innate immune cells and induce a primary response. Innate immune cells will produce cytokines or ...

Figure 2: Molecular mechanisms of trained immunity. Inducers of trained immunity, such as β-glucan, BCG, uric acid, and several (oxidized) lipids, activate intracellular metabolic pathways, each via d...

Figure 3: Central versus peripheral trained immunity. Although trained immunity was first discovered in circulating cells such as monocytes and NK cells, these cells have a short life span; it is shor...

Figure 4: Trained immunity in health and disease. Trained immunity is associated with both health and disease states, and therefore there is therapeutic potential in either inducing it or inhibiting i...