PEPTIDES AS WEAPONS AGAINST MICROORGANISMS IN THE CHEMICAL DEFENSE SYSTEM OF VERTEBRATES

Figure 1: Taxonomy of HCoVs: the updated classification scheme of HCoV and other coronaviruses. The six known HCoVs are in blue. Abbreviations: BtCoV, bat coronavirus; BuCoV, bulbul coronavirus; HCoV,...

Figure 2: Genome structure of human coronaviruses (HCoVs). Schematic diagram showing the genome structure of six known HCoVs (not to scale). The 5′-cap structure (5′-C) and 3′-polyadenylation (AnAOH-3...

Figure 3: Replication cycle of human coronaviruses (HCoVs). Schematic diagram showing the general replication cycle of HCoVs. Infection starts with the attachment of HCoVs to the cognate cellular rece...

Figure 4: Induction and modulation of autophagy by HCoV infection. Schematic diagram showing the signaling pathway of autophagy and the modulatory mechanisms utilized by HCoV. Viruses and viral compon...

Figure 5: Apoptosis induced by HCoV infection and modulatory mechanisms. Schematic diagram showing the signaling pathway of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis induction and the modulatory mechanisms ut...

Figure 6: Induction and modulation of unfolded protein response by HCoV infection. Schematic diagram showing the three branches of UPR signaling pathway activated and regulated by HCoV infection. Viru...

Figure 7: Activation and modulation of MAPK signaling pathways by HCoV infection. Schematic diagram showing the activation and modulation of MAPK signaling pathway by HCoV infection. Viruses and viral...

Figure 8: Type I interferon induction and signaling during HCoV infection and modulatory mechanisms. Schematic diagram showing the induction and signaling pathways of type I interferon during HCoV inf...

Figure 1: The Vibrio fischeri LuxI/LuxR quorum sensing circuit. There are five luciferase structural genes (luxCDABE) and two regulatory genes (luxR and luxI) required for quorum sensing–controlled l...

Figure 2: The Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasI/LasR-RhlI/RhlR quorum sensing system. P. aeruginosa uses two LuxI/LuxR-like autoinducer-sensor pairs for quorum sensing regulation of a variety of genes. The...

Figure 3: LuxI-directed biosynthesis of acylated homoserine lactone autoinducers. The LuxI family of proteins uses S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) and specific acyl-acyl carrier proteins (acyl-ACP) as sub...

Figure 4: A general model for peptide-mediated quorum sensing in Gram-positive bacteria. In Gram-positive bacteria, a peptide signal precursor locus is translated into a precursor protein (black and ...

Figure 5: Quorum sensing control of competence and sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. B. subtilis employs two processed peptide autoinducers, ComX (gray circles) and CSF (white diamonds), to regulate ...

Figure 6: The hybrid HSL-two-component quorum sensing circuit of Vibrio harveyi. V. harveyi uses two autoinducers to regulate density-dependent light production. AI-1 is N-(3-hydroxybutanoyl)-homoser...

Figure 1: Genomic structures and taxonomy of selected CoVs. The generic CoV genome is shown with a 5′-cap structure and a 3′-polyadenylated tail (AnAOH 3′). ORF1a is translated to produce pp1a, wherea...

Figure 2: Topologies and domains of CoV structural proteins. Amino acid sequences flanking the S1/S2 sites of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV are shown. The arginines in the furin cleavage motifs o...

Figure 3: Schematic diagram showing the replication cycle of SARS-CoV-2. Variations in the replication cycle of other CoVs are indicated in orange boxes. The SARS-CoV-2 S protein binds to the receptor...

Figure 4: Simplified model of immunopathogenesis in COVID-19. Abbreviations: CoV, coronavirus; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; DAMP, damage-associated molecular pattern; G-CSF, granulocyte colony-...

Figure 5: Four types of programmed cell death activated by CoV infection. Induction of ROSs and free cytosolic iron by CoV infection is only speculative (dotted arrow). Abbreviations: CoV, coronavirus...