1932

Abstract

This article identifies and presents the main debates and issues that are generating interest in the field of creole studies. It is composed of two main sections. The first one presents the debates currently stimulating creolistics: the nature of pidgins and creoles and the relation between the two, the sociological and typological distinction between pidgins and creoles, the various theories explaining their origin, and their transformation through time. The second part raises issues linked to the social life of these languages, an area of research that, though present since the beginning of creolistics, has remained limited. Using the framework of linguistic ideology, this review surveys the social status of pidgins and creoles, the prejudices that exclude them from being used at schools, and their lack of linguistic legitimacy. It concludes with a discussion of pidgins and creoles on social media.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-121319-071304
2021-10-21
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/anthro/50/1/annurev-anthro-121319-071304.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-121319-071304&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aboh EO. 2016. Creole distinctiveness: a dead end?. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 31:2400–18
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Aboh EO, Ansaldo U. 2007. The role of typology in language creation: a descriptive take. See Ansaldo et al. 2007 39–66
  3. Aboh EO, DeGraff M. 2014. Some notes on bare noun phrases in Haitian Creole and in Gùngbè: a transatlantic Sprachbund perspective. The Sociolinguistics of Grammar TA Åfarli, Brit Mæhlum 203–36 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Aboh EO, Smith N. 2009. Complex Processes in New Languages Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  5. Abtahian MR. 2017. Language shift, endangerment and prestige: Kriol and Garifuna in Hopkins, Belize. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 32:2339–64
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Agbo OF, Plag I. 2020. The relationship of Nigerian English and Nigerian pidgin in Nigeria: evidence from copula constructions in ICE-Nigeria. J. Lang. Contact 13:351–88
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Agha A. 2003. The social life of a cultural value. Lang. Commun. 23:231–73
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Alleyne M. 1996. Syntaxe historique créole Paris/Schoelcher, Martin: Éd. Karthala/Press. Univ. Créoles
  9. Angelo D. 2020. Creoles, education and policy. See Ansaldo & Meyerhoff 2020 286–301
  10. Ansaldo U, Matthews SJ. 2007. Deconstructing creole: the rationale. See Ansaldo et al. 2007 1–18
  11. Ansaldo U, Matthews S, Lim L 2007. Deconstructing Creole Typol. Stud. Lang. 73 Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins
  12. Ansaldo U, Meyerhoff M 2020. Routledge Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies London: Routledge
  13. Arends J 1995. The Early Stages of Creolization Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  14. Arends J. 2008. A demographic perspective on creole formation. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 309–31
  15. Baker P. 1995. Some developmental inferences from the historical studies of pidgins and creoles. See Arends 1995 1–24
  16. Bakker P. 2008. Pidgins versus creoles and pidgincreoles. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 130–57
  17. Bakker P. 2014. Creoles and typology: problems of sampling and definition. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 29:2437–55
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bakker P. 2015. Creoles languages have no.…—but they do have.…. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 30:1167–76
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bakker P, Borchsenius F, Levisen C, Sippola E 2017. Creole Studies: Phylogenetic Approaches Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  20. Bakker P, Daval-Markussen A, Parkvall M, Plag I. 2011. Creoles are typologically distinct from non-creoles. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 26:15–42
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Baptista M. 2005. New directions in pidgin and creole studies. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 34:33–42
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Baptista M. 2016. Creole formation and L2 acquisition: on reevaluating processes and labels. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 31:2361–89
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Beckford Wassink A 1999. Historic low prestige and seeds of change: attitudes toward Jamaican Creole. Lang. Soc 28:157–92
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Bickerton D. 1981. Roots of Language Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma
  25. Bickerton D. 1984. The language bioprogram hypothesis. Behav. Brain Sci. 7:173–88
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Blasi DE, Michaelis SM, Haspelmath M. 2017. Grammars are robustly transmitted even during the emergence of creole languages. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1:723–29
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Brown-Blake C. 2008. The right to linguistic non-discrimination and Creole language situations: the case of Jamaica. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 23:132–73
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Bruyn A. 2008. Grammaticalisation in pidgins and creoles. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 385–410
  29. Calvet LJ. 1979. Linguistique et colonialisme: Petit traité de glottophagie Paris: Petite Bibl. Payot
  30. Chaudenson R. 1992. Des îles, des hommes, des langues. Essai sur la créolisation linguistique et culturelle Paris: Ed. L'Harmattan
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Chaudenson R. 2012. La genèse des créoles des Mascareignes et des Seychelles: microcosme et substrats. Etudes Océan Indien 48: https://doi.org/10.4000/oceanindien.1503
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  32. Chaudenson R, Mufwene S. 2001. Creolization of Language and Culture London: Routledge
  33. Crowley T. 1990. Beach-la-Mar to Bislama: The Emergence of a National Language in Vanuatu Oxford Stud. Lang. Contact Oxford, UK: Clarendon
  34. Crystal D. 2006. Language and the Internet Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  35. DeGraff M. 2001. On the origin of creoles: a Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics. Linguist. Typol. 5:2/3213–310
    [Google Scholar]
  36. DeGraff M. 2002. Relexification: a reevaluation. Anthropol. Linguist 44:4321–414
    [Google Scholar]
  37. DeGraff M. 2005. Linguists' most dangerous myth: the fallacy of creole exceptionalism. Lang. Soc 34:533–91
    [Google Scholar]
  38. DeGraff M. 2020. The politics of education in post-colonies: Kreyòl in Haiti as a case study of language as technology for power and liberation. J. Postcolon. Linguist. 3:89–125
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Devonish H, Carpenter K. 2007. Towards full bilingualism in education: the Jamaican bilingual primary education project. Soc. Econ. Stud. 56:277–303
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Eades D, Siegel J. 1999. Changing attitudes towards Australian creoles and Aboriginal English. See Rickford & Romaine 1999 265–77
  41. Errington J. 2001. Colonial linguistics. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 30:19–39
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Escure G. 1991. De l'usage du créole par les Mayas et les Afro-Indiens au Bélize (Amérique Centrale). Etudes Creoles 14:2112–27
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Faraclas N. 2020. Identity politics. See Ansaldo & Meyerhoff 2020 269–85
  44. Farquharson J, Migge B. 2017a. Introduction: sociolinguistics and/of pidgins and creoles. See Farquharson & Migge 2017b 1–11
  45. Farquharson J, Migge B 2017b. Pidgins and Creoles: Critical Studies in LinguisticsVol. 3 London: Routledge
  46. Fleischmann Schwartz CT, Nick IM 2018.. “ Mon respe tou lezot lalang!”: a case study of native teacher attitudes towards Creole-mediated multilingual education in Seychelles. Curr. Issues Lang. Plan. 19:2183–97
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Garlaza Ballester MT 2016. A socio-historical account of the formation of the creole language of Antigua. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 31:2288–315
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Garrett PB. 2000.. “ High” Kwéyòl: the emergence of a formal creole register in St. Lucia. See McWhorter 2000a 63–101
  49. Garrett PB. 2005. What a language is good for: language socialization, language shift, and the persistence of code-specific genres in St. Lucia. Lang. Soc 34:3327–61
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Garrett PB. 2006. Contact languages as “endangered” languages: What is there to lose?. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 21:1175–90
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Garrett PB. 2012. Dying young: pidgins, creoles and other contact languages as endangered languages. The Anthropology of Extinction: Essays on Culture and Species Death GM Sodikoff 143–62 Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Handman C. 2013. Text messaging in Tok Pisin: etymologies and orthographies in cosmopolitan Papua New Guinea. Cult. Theory Crit. 54:3265–84
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Haspelmath M, Dryer MS, Gil D, Comrie B 2005. The World Atlas of Language Structures Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  54. Heller M, McElhinny B. 2017. Language, Capitalism, Colonialism: Toward a Critical History Toronto: Univ. Tor. Press
  55. Hinrichs L 2006. Creole on the Internet: new types of evidence in the study of written vernacular language use among young people. Perspektiven der Jugendsprachforschung/Trends and Developments in Youth Language Research C Dürscheid, J Spitzmüller 183–200 Frankfurt, Ger: Peter Lang
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Hinrichs L, Farquharson JT 2011. Variation in the Caribbean: From Creole Continua to Individual Agency Creole Lang. Libr. Vol. 37 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  57. Holm J, Patrick PL 2007. Comparative Creole Syntax: Parallel Outlines of 18 Creole Grammars London: Battlebridge
  58. Jacobs B. 2009. The Upper Guinea origins of Papiamentu: linguistic and historical evidence. Diachronica 26:3319–79
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Jourdan C. 1991. Pidgins and creoles: the blurring of categories. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 20:187–209
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Jourdan C. 2000. My nephew is my aunt: features and transformations of kinship terminology in Solomon Islands Pijin. Processes of Language Contact: Studies from Australia and the South Pacific J Siegel 99–122 Montreal, Can: Fides
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jourdan C. 2008. The cultural in pidgin genesis. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 359–81
  62. Jourdan C. 2009. Complexification or regularization of paradigms: the case of prepositional verbs in Solomon Islands Pijin. See Aboh & Smith 2009 159–70
  63. Jourdan C, Angeli J 2014. Pijin and shifting language ideologies in urban Solomon Islands. Lang. Soc 43:3265–85
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Jourdan C, Keesing RM 1997. From Fisin to Pijin: creolization in process in the Solomon Islands. Lang. Soc 26:401–20
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Keesing RM. 1988. Melanesian Pidgins and the Oceanic Substrate Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  66. Keesing RM. 1991. The expansion of Melanesian pidgin. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 6:2215–29
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Kihm A. 2011. Substrate influences in Kruyol: Guinea-Bissau and Casamance Portuguese-related creole. See Lefebvre 2011 81–103
  68. Kihm A, Rougé J-L. 2013. Língua de Preto, the Basic Variety at the root of West African Portuguese Creoles. A contribution to the theory of pidgin/creole formation as second language acquisition. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 28:2203–98
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Kilani-Schoch M. 2019. Débat sur les créoles. Anthropen: le dictionnaire francophone d'anthropologie ancré dans le contemporain https://doi.org/10.17184/eac.anthropen.118
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  70. Kouwenberg S 2017. The sociohistorical matrix of creolization and the role children played in this process. Language Contact in Africa and the African Diaspora in the Americas. In Honor of John V. Singler C Cutler, Z Vrzić, P Angermeyer 79–99 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Kouwenberg S, Singler JV 2008a. The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies London: Wiley-Blackwell
  72. Kouwenberg S, Singler JV. 2008b. Introduction. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 1–16
  73. Kouwenberg S, Singler JV. 2018. Creolization in context: historical and typological perspectives. Annu. Rev. Linguist. 4:213–32
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Kulick D. 2020. A Death in the Rainforest: How a Language and a Way of Life Came to an End in Papua New Guinea Chapel Hill, NC: Algonguin Books
  75. Lee NH. 2020. The status of endangered contact languages of the world. Annu. Rev. Linguist. 6:301–18
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Lefebvre C. 1993. The role of relexification and syntactic reanalysis in Haitian Creole: methodological aspects of a research program. Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties SS Mufwene 254–79 Athens: Univ. Ga. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lefebvre C. 1996. The tense, mood and aspect system of Haitian Creole and the problem of transmission of grammar in creole genesis. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 11:2231–313
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Lefebvre C. 1998. Creole Genesis and the Acquisition of Grammar: The Case of Haitian Creole Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  79. Lefebvre C. 2008. Relabelling: a major process in language contact. J. Lang. Contact 2:91–111
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Lefebvre C 2011. Creoles, Their Substrates, and Language Typology Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  81. Lefebvre C. 2014. Relabeling in Language Genesis Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  82. Lefebvre C, Lumsden J. 1989. Les langues Créoles et la théorie linguistique. Can. J. Linguist./Rev. Can. Linguist. 34:3249–72
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Léglise I, Migge B 2006. Language-naming practices, ideologies, and linguistic practices: toward a comprehensive description of language varieties. Lang. Soc 35:3313–39
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Lepage R, Tabouret-Keller A. 1985. Acts of Identity. Creole Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  85. Lesho M. 2018. Folk perception of variation in Cavite Chabacano. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 33:11–47
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Mayeux OF. 2019. Rethinking decreolization: language contact and change in Louisiana Creole PhD Thesis Univ. Cambridge Cambridge, UK:
  87. McCulloch G. 2019. Because Internet: Understanding the New Rules of Language New York: Penguin Books
  88. McWhorter J ed 2000a. Language Change and Language Contact in Pidgins and Creoles Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  89. McWhorter J. 2013. Language turned off?: The legacy of the bioprogram hypothesis. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 28:1131–36
    [Google Scholar]
  90. McWhorter JH. 1998. Identifying the creole prototype: vindicating a typological class. Language 74:4799–818
    [Google Scholar]
  91. McWhorter JH. 2000b. The Missing Spanish Creoles: Recovering the Birth of Plantation Contact Languages Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  92. McWhorter JH. 2001. The world's simplest grammars are creole grammars. Linguist. Typol. 5:3/4125–66
    [Google Scholar]
  93. McWhorter JH. 2018a. The Creole Debate Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  94. McWhorter JH 2018b. Is grammaticalization in creoles different?. Grammaticalization from a Typological Perspective H Narrog, B Heine 394–408 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Meakins F. 2012. Which mix? Code-switching or a mixed language: Gurindji Kriol. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 27:1105–40
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Ménard A 2018. Dynamics of inclusion and exclusion related to a creole language: ‘Krio’ as an ambivalent semiotic register in present-day Sierra Leone. Creolization and Pidginization in Contexts of Postcolonial Diversity J Knörr, WT Filho 209–29 Leiden: Brill
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Meyerhoff M. 2008. Forging Pacific pidgin and creole syntax: substrates, discourse and inherent variability. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 48–73
  98. Meyerhoff M. 2009. Replication, transfer, and calquing: using variation as a tool in the study of language contact. Lang. Var. Change 21:3297–317
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Meyerhoff M, Walker J. 2013. Bequia Talk (St. Vincent and Grenadines) London: Battlebridge
  100. Michaelis SM 2008. Roots of Creole Structures: Weighing the Contribution of Substrates and Superstrates Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  101. Michaelis SM. 2020. Avoiding bias in comparative creole studies: stratification by lexifier and substrate. Isogloss 6: https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/isogloss.100
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  102. Michaelis SM, Haspelmath M 2020. Grammaticalization in creole languages: accelerated functionalism and semantic imitation. Grammaticalization Scenarios: Cross-Linguistic Variations and Universal Tendencies W Bisang, A Malchukov 1109–28 Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Michaelis SM, Maurer P, Haspelmath M, Huber M 2013. The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  104. Migge B. 2005. Variation linguistique dans les situations formelles chez les Pamaka. Etudes Créoles 28:59–92
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Migge B. 2011. Assessing the nature and role of substrate influence in the formation and development of the creoles of Suriname. See Lefebvre 2011 155–80
  106. Migge B. 2020. Broadening creole studies: from grammar towards discourse. J. Pidgin Creoles Lang. 35:1160–77
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Migge B, Léglise I. 2011. On the emergence of new language varieties: the case of the Eastern Maroon Creole in French Guiana. See Hinrichs & Farquharson 2011 207–30
  108. Migge B, Léglise I. 2015. Assessing the sociolinguistic situation of the Maroon creoles. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 30:163–115
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Migge B, Léglise I, Bartens A 2010. Creoles in Education: An Appraisal of Current Programs and Projects Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  110. Miller C. 2014. Juba Arabic as a written language. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 29:2352–84
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Moll A. 2015. Jamaican Creole Goes Web: Sociolinguistic Styling and Authenticity in a Digital ‘Yaad’ Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  112. Mufwene SS 1986. The universalist and substrate hypotheses complement one another. Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis P Muysken, N Smith 129–62 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Mufwene SS 1992. Africanisms in Gullah: a re-examination of the issues. Old English and New: Studies in Language and Linguistics in Honor of Frederic G. Cassidy J Hall, N Doane, R Ringler 156–82 New York: Garland
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Mufwene SS. 1996. The founder principle in creole genesis. Diachronica 13:183–134
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Mufwene SS. 2001. The Ecology of Language Evolution Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  116. Mufwene SS. 2008. Language Evolution. Contact, Competition, and Change New York: Continuum
  117. Mufwene SS. 2016. The emergence of creoles and language change. The Handbook of Linguistic Anthropology N Bonvillain 348–65 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Mufwene SS 2020. Creoles and pidgins: why the latter are not the ancestors of the former. The Routledge Handbook of Language Contact E Adamou, Y Matras 300–24 New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Mühlhäusler P. 1976. Growth and structure of the lexicon of New Guinea pidgin PhD Thesis, Dep. Linguist., Res. Sch. Pac Stud., Aust. Natl. Univ Canberra:
  120. Mühlhäusler P. 1986. Pidgin and Creole Linguistics London: Basil Blackwell
  121. Mühlheisen S. 2017. 2001. Is ‘bad English’ dying out? A comparative diachronic study of attitudes towards Creole versus Standard English in Trinidad. See Farquharson & Migge 2017b 319–52
  122. Owodally AMA. 2015. To benefit from the L1 education, teach the L2 optimally.…. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 30:2353–56
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Parkvall M 2008. The simplicity of creoles in a cross-linguistic perspective. Language Complexity: Typology, Contact, Change M Miestamo, K Sinnemäki, F Karlsson 265–85 Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Patrick PL. 1999. Urban Jamaican Creole: Variation in the Mesolect Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  125. Patrick PL. 2008. Pidgins, creoles, and variation. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 461–87
  126. Paugh AL. 2012. Playing with Languages: Children and Change in a Caribbean Village New York: Berghahn Books
  127. Plag I. 2008. Creoles as interlanguages: syntactic structures. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 23:2307–38
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Ponsonnet M. 2018. Lexical semantics in language shift: comparing emotion lexica in Dalabon and Barunga Kriol (northern Australia). J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 33:192–135
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Quint N, Tavares KM. 2019. The common African lexical core of the Upper Guinea Creoles and its historical significance. J. Ibero-Romance Creoles 9:1115–61
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Rickford JR, Romaine S 1999. Creole Genesis, Attitudes, and Discourse Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  131. Roberts SJ. 2000. Nativization and the genesis of Hawaiian Creole. See McWhorter 2000a 257–300
  132. Roberts SJ. 2004. The emergence of Hawai‘i Creole English in the early 20th century: the sociohistorical context of creole genesis PhD Diss., Stanford Univ. Stanford, CA:
  133. Romaine S 1999. Changing attitudes to Hawai'i Creole English: fo’ find one good job, you gotta know how fo’ talk like one haole. See Rickford & Romaine 1999 287–301
  134. Sankoff G. 1984. Substrate and universals in the Tok Pisin verb phrase. Meaning, Form, and Use in Context: Linguistic Applications D Schiffrin 104–19 Georgetown Univ. Roundtable 1984 Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Sankoff G. 1994. An historical and evolutionary approach to variation in the Tok Pisin verb phrase. Parasess. Var. Linguist. Theory Chicago Linguist. Soc. 30:293–320
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Sankoff G, Brown P. 1976. The origins of syntax in discourse: a case study of Tok Pisin relatives. Language 52:3631–66
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Sankoff G, Laberge S. 1973. On the acquisition of native speakers by a language. Kiving 6:132–47
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Schieffelin BB, Doucet RC. 1994. The “real” Haitian creole: ideology, metalinguistics, and orthographic choice. Am. Ethnol. 21:1176–200
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Schwegler A, McWhorter J, Ströbel L 2016. The Iberian Challenge: Creole Languages Beyond the Plantation Settings Madrid/Frankfurt: IberoAmericana/Vervuet
  140. Sebba M. 2000. Orthography and ideology: issues in Sranan spelling. Linguistics 38:5925–48
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Selbach R. 2008. The superstrate is not always the lexifier: Lingua Franca in the Barbary Coast 1530–1830. See Michaelis 2008 29–58
  142. Selbach R. 2020. On the history of pidgin and creole studies. See Ansaldo & Meyerhoff 2020 365–83
  143. Selbach R, Cardoso HC, van den Berg M. 2009. Gradual Creolization: Studies Celebrating Jacques Arends Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  144. Sessarego S. 2015. Afro-Peruvian Spanish: Spanish Slavery and the Legacy of Spanish Creoles Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins
  145. Siegel J. 1999. Creoles and minority dialect in education: an overview. J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev. 20:6508–31
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Siegel J. 2005. Literacy in pidgin and creole languages. Curr. Issues Lang. Plan. 6:2143–63
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Siegel J. 2006. Links between SLA and creole studies: past and present. L2 Acquisition and Creole Genesis C Lefebvre, L White, C Jourdan 15–46 Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Siegel J. 2008a. The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  149. Siegel J. 2008b. Pidgins/creoles, and second language acquisition. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 187–218
  150. Siegel J. 2011. Substrate reinforcement and the retention of pan-Pacific pidgin features in modern contact varieties. See Lefebvre 2011 531–56
  151. Singler JV. 1988. The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis. Language 64:127–51
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Singler JV. 1995. The demographics of creole genesis in the Caribbean: a comparison of Martinique and Haiti. See Arends 1995 203–32
  153. Singler JV. 1996. Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: the case of Haitian Creole and the relexification hypothesis. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 11:2185–230
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Singler JV. 2006. Children and creole genesis. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 21:1157–73
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Singler JV. 2008. The sociohistorical context of creole genesis. See Kouwenberg & Singler 2008a 332–58
  156. Smith GP. 2002. Growing Up with Tok Pisin: Contact, Creolization and Change in Papua New Guinea National Language London: Battlebridge
  157. Snyder-Frey A. 2013. He kuleana kō kākou: Hawaiian-language learners and the construction of (alter)native identities. Curr. Issues Lang. Plan. 14:2231–43
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Stanwood RE. 2014. On the Adequacy of Hawai'i Creole English SIL eBook 61 Dallas, TX: SIL Int https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/28/81/86/28818634449692712030348306103003554081/e_Book_61_Stanwood_Adequacy_Hawaii_Creole_English.pdf
  159. Thomason SG, Kaufman T. 1992. Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  160. Tryon DT, Charpentier J-M. 2004. Pacific Pidgins and Creoles: Origins, Growth and Development Trends Linguist., Stud. Monogr. 132 Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter
  161. Tsing AL. 2005. Friction. An Ethnography of Global Connection Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  162. Valdman A, Villeneuve J, Siegel J. 2015. On the influence of the standard norm of Haitian Creole on the Cap Haïtien dialect. Evidence from sociolinguistic variation in the third person singular pronoun. J. Pidgin Creole Lang. 30:11–43
    [Google Scholar]
  163. van den Berg M, Selbach R. 2009. One more cup of coffee: on gradual creolization. See Selbach et al. 2009 3–12
  164. Vandeputte L. 2018. L'ambiguïté des représentations à l'égard du Bislama, langue nationale du Vanuatu (Mélanésie). Vanuatu: oscillation entre diversité et unité M Boubay-Pagès Toulouse, Fr: Press. Univ. Toulouse 1 Capitole https://doi.org/10.4000/books.putc.3165
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  165. Vandeputte-Tavo L. 2013. Bislama in the educational system? Debate around the legitimacy of a creole at school in a postcolonial country. Curr. Issues Lang. Plan. 14:2254–69
    [Google Scholar]
  166. Velupillai V. 2015. Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages: An Introduction Amsterdam: John Benjamins
  167. Willans F. 2017. Grassroots talk back on social media: an analysis of public engagement in Vanuatu's language-in-education policy. Curr. Issues Lang. Plan. 18:4371–87
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Winford D 1997. Re-examining Caribbean English Creole continua. World Englishes 16:2233–79
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Winford D 2003. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics Oxford, UK: Blackwell
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-121319-071304
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error