1932

Abstract

The disks that orbit young stars are the essential conduits and reservoirs of material for star and planet formation. Their structures, meaning the spatial variations of the disk physical conditions, reflect the underlying mechanisms that drive those formation processes. Observations of the solids and gas in these disks, particularly at high resolution, provide fundamental insights on their mass distributions, dynamical states, and evolutionary behaviors. Over the past decade, rapid developments in these areas have largely been driven by observations with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). This review highlights the state of observational research on disk structures, emphasizing the following three key conclusions that reflect the main branches of the field:

  • ▪   Relationships among disk structure properties are also linked to the masses, environments, and evolutionary states of their stellar hosts.
  • ▪   There is clear, qualitative evidence for the growth and migration of disk solids, although the implied evolutionary timescales suggest the classical assumption of a smooth gas disk is inappropriate.
  • ▪   Small-scale substructures with a variety of morphologies, locations, scales, and amplitudes—presumably tracing local gas pressure maxima—broadly influence the physical and observational properties of disks.
The last point especially is reshaping the field, with the recognition that these disk substructures likely trace active sites of planetesimal growth or are the hallmarks of planetary systems at their formation epoch.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-031220-010302
2020-08-18
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/astro/58/1/annurev-astro-031220-010302.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-031220-010302&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aikawa Y, Umebayashi T, Nakano T, Miyama SM 1997. Ap. J. Lett. 486:L51–54
  2. Akeson RL, Jensen ELN 2014. Ap. J. 784:62
  3. Akeson RL, Jensen ELN, Carpenter J 2019. Ap. J. 872:158
  4. Akiyama E, Hashimoto J, Liu HB 2016. Astron. J. 152:222
  5. Akiyama E, Muto T, Kusakabe N 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 802:L17
  6. Alexander R, Pascucci I, Andrews S, Armitage P, Cieza L 2014.. See Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 475–496
  7. ALMA Partnership, Brogan CL, Pérez LM 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 808:L3
  8. Alves FO, Caselli P, Girart JM 2019. Science 366:90–93
  9. Andersen BC, Stephens IW, Dunham MM 2019. Ap. J. 873:54
  10. Andrews SM, Huang J, Pérez LM 2018a. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L41
  11. Andrews SM, Rosenfeld KA, Kraus AL, Wilner DJ 2013. Ap. J. 771:129
  12. Andrews SM, Terrell M, Tripathi A 2018b. Ap. J. 865:157
  13. Andrews SM, Williams JP 2005. Ap. J. 631:1134–60
  14. Andrews SM, Williams JP 2007a. Ap. J. 659:705–28
  15. Andrews SM, Williams JP 2007b. Ap. J. 671:1800–12
  16. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Espaillat C 2011. Ap. J. 732:42
  17. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Hughes AM, Qi C, Dullemond CP 2009. Ap. J. 700:1502–23
  18. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Hughes AM, Qi C, Dullemond CP 2010. Ap. J. 723:1241–54
  19. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Hughes AM 2012. Ap. J. 744:162
  20. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Zhu Z 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 820:L40
  21. Ansdell M, Williams JP, Manara CF 2017. Astron. J. 153:240
  22. Ansdell M, Williams JP, Trapman L 2018. Ap. J. 859:21
  23. Ansdell M, Williams JP, van der Marel N 2016. Ap. J. 828:46
  24. Armitage PJ 2011. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 49:195–236
  25. Artymowicz P, Lubow SH 1994. Ap. J. 421:651–67
  26. Astropy Collab., Price-Whelan AM, Sipőcz BM 2018. Astron. J. 156:123
  27. Ataiee S, Pinilla P, Zsom A 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 553:L3
  28. Avenhaus H, Quanz SP, Garufi A 2018. Ap. J. 863:44
  29. Avenhaus H, Quanz SP, Schmid HM 2014. Ap. J. 781:87
  30. Bacciotti F, Girart JM, Padovani M 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 865:L12
  31. Bae J, Hartmann L, Zhu Z 2015. Ap. J. 805:15
  32. Bae J, Zhu Z 2018. Ap. J. 859:118
  33. Bae J, Zhu Z, Hartmann L 2017. Ap. J. 850:201
  34. Bai X-N, Stone JM 2013. Ap. J. 769:76
  35. Bai X-N, Stone JM 2014. Ap. J. 796:31
  36. Balbus SA, Hawley JF 1991. Ap. J. 376:214–22
  37. Barenfeld SA, Carpenter JM, Ricci L, Isella A 2017a. Ap. J. 827:142
  38. Barenfeld SA, Carpenter JM, Sargent AI, Isella A, Ricci L 2017b. Ap. J. 851:85
  39. Barge P, Sommeria J 1995. Astron. Astrophys. 295:L1–4
  40. Baruteau C, Crida A, Paardekooper S-J 2014.. See Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 667–89
  41. Baruteau C, Zhu Z 2016. MNRAS 458:3927–41
  42. Bate MR 2018. MNRAS 475:5618–58
  43. Beckwith SVW, Sargent AI 1991. Ap. J. 381:250–58
  44. Beckwith SVW, Sargent AI 1993. Ap. J. 402:280–91
  45. Beckwith SVW, Sargent AI, Chini RS, Guesten R 1990. Astron. J. 99:924–45
  46. Bell CPM, Naylor T, Mayne NJ, Jeffries RD, Littlefair SP 2013. MNRAS 434:806–31
  47. Benisty M, Juhasz A, Boccaletti A 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 578:L6
  48. Benisty M, Juhász A, Facchini S 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 619:A171
  49. Benisty M, Stolker T, Pohl A 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 597:A42
  50. Benz W, Ida S, Alibert Y 2014.. See Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 691–713
  51. Bergin EA, Cleeves LI, Gorti U 2013. Nature 493:644–46
  52. Bertrang GHM, Flock M, Wolf S 2017. MNRAS 464:L61–64
  53. Bertrang GHM, Wolf S 2017. MNRAS 469:2869–78
  54. Béthune W, Lesur G, Ferreira J 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 589:A87
  55. Beuther H, Klessen RS, Dullemond CP, Henning T eds 2014. Protostars and Planets VI Tucson, AZ: Univ. Ariz. Press
  56. Birnstiel T, Andrews SM 2014. Ap. J. 780:153
  57. Birnstiel T, Andrews SM, Pinilla P, Kama M 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 813:L14
  58. Birnstiel T, Dullemond CP, Brauer F 2009. Astron. Astrophys. 503:L5–8
  59. Birnstiel T, Dullemond CP, Brauer F 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 513:A79
  60. Birnstiel T, Dullemond CP, Pinilla P 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 550:L8
  61. Birnstiel T, Dullemond CP, Zhu Z 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L45
  62. Birnstiel T, Klahr H, Ercolano B 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 539:A148
  63. Birnstiel T, Ormel CW, Dullemond CP 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 525:A11
  64. Blandford RD, Payne DG 1982. MNRAS 199:883–903
  65. Boehler Y, Dutrey A, Guilloteau S, Piétu V 2013. MNRAS 431:1573–86
  66. Boehler Y, Ricci L, Weaver E 2018. Ap. J. 853:162
  67. Bohn AJ, Kenworthy MA, Ginski C 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 624:A87
  68. Booth AS, Walsh C, Ilee JD 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 882:L31
  69. Bosman AD, Walsh C, van Dishoeck E 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 618:A182
  70. Boss AP 1997. Science 276:1836–39
  71. Boudet N, Mutschke H, Nayral C 2005. Ap. J. 633:272–81
  72. Brauer F, Dullemond CP, Henning T 2008. Astron. Astrophys. 480:859–77
  73. Brauer F, Dullemond CP, Johansen A 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 469:1169–82
  74. Brauer R, Wolf S, Flock M 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 607:A104
  75. Breslau A, Steinhausen M, Vincke K, Pfalzner S 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 565:A130
  76. Brinch C, Jørgensen JK, Hogerheijde MR, Nelson RP, Gressel O 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 830:L16
  77. Brown JM, Blake GA, Qi C 2009. Ap. J. 704:496–502
  78. Bruderer S 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 559:A46
  79. Calvet N, D'Alessio P, Hartmann L 2002. Ap. J. 568:1008–16
  80. Calvet N, Patino A, Magris GC, D'Alessio P 1991. Ap. J. 380:617–30
  81. Carrasco-González C, Henning T, Chandler CJ 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 821:L16
  82. Carrasco-González C, Sierra A, Flock M 2019. Ap. J. 883:71
  83. Casassus S, Avenhaus H, Pérez S 2018. MNRAS 477:5104–14
  84. Casassus S, Marino S, Pérez S 2015a. Ap. J. 811:92
  85. Casassus S, Pérez S 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 883:L41
  86. Casassus S, van der Plas G, Pérez S 2013. Nature 493:191–94
  87. Casassus S, Wright CM, Marino S 2015b. Ap. J. 812:126
  88. Cazzoletti P, van Dishoeck EF, Pinilla P 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 619:A161
  89. Chiang E, Laughlin G 2013. MNRAS 431:3444–55
  90. Chiang EI, Goldreich P 1997. Ap. J. 490:368–76
  91. Cho J, Lazarian A 2007. Ap. J. 669:1085–97
  92. Christiaens V, Casassus S, Pérez S, van der Plas G, Ménard F 2014. Ap. J. Lett. 785:L12
  93. Ciesla FJ, Cuzzi JN 2006. Icarus 181:178–204
  94. Cieza L, Williams J, Kourkchi E 2015. MNRAS 454:1909–20
  95. Cieza LA, Casassus S, Tobin J 2016. Nature 535:258–61
  96. Cieza LA, Ruíz-Rodríguez D, Hales A 2019. MNRAS 482:698–714
  97. Clarke CJ, Pringle JE 1993. MNRAS 261:190–202
  98. Clarke CJ, Tazzari M, Juhász A 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 866:L6
  99. Cleeves LI, Adams FC, Bergin EA, Visser R 2013. Ap. J. 777:28
  100. Cleeves LI, Bergin EA, Öberg KI 2017. Ap. J. Lett. 843:L3
  101. Cox EG, Harris RJ, Looney LW 2017. Ap. J. 851:83
  102. Cuello N, Dipierro G, Mentiplay D 2019. MNRAS 483:4114–39
  103. Cuzzi JN, Hogan RC, Paque JM 2001. Ap. J. 546:496–508
  104. Cuzzi JN, Estrada PR, Davis SS 2014. Ap. J. Suppl. 210:21
  105. Cuzzi JN, Zahnle KJ 2004. Ap. J. 614:490–96
  106. Czekala I, Andrews SM, Jensen ELN 2015. Ap. J. 806:154
  107. D'Alessio P, Calvet N, Hartmann L 1997. Ap. J. 474:397–406
  108. D'Alessio P, Calvet N, Hartmann L 2001. Ap. J. 553:321–34
  109. D'Alessio P, Calvet N, Hartmann L, Lizano S, Cantó J 1999. Ap. J. 527:893–909
  110. D'Alessio P, Calvet N, Hartmann L, Franco-Hernández R, Servín H 2006. Ap. J. 638:314–35
  111. D'Alessio P, Cantó J, Calvet N, Lizano S 1998. Ap. J. 500:411–27
  112. Dartois E, Dutrey A, Guilloteau S 2003. Astron. Astrophys. 399:773–87
  113. de Boer J, Salter G, Benisty M 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 595:A114
  114. de Juan Ovelar M, Kruijssen JMD, Bressert E 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 546:L1
  115. Debes JH, Poteet CA, Jang-Condell H 2017. Ap. J. 835:205
  116. Dent WRF, Pinte C, Cortes PC 2019. MNRAS 482:L29–33
  117. Dipierro G, Laibe G, Price DJ, Lodato G 2016. MNRAS 459:L1–5
  118. Dipierro G, Pinilla P, Lodato G, Testi L 2015. MNRAS 451:974–86
  119. Dittrich K, Klahr H, Johansen A 2013. Ap. J. 763:117
  120. Dodson-Robinson SE, Salyk C 2011. Ap. J. 738:131
  121. Dohnanyi JS 1969. J. Geo. Res. 74:2531–54
  122. Dominik C, Tielens AGGM 1997. Ap. J. 480:647–73
  123. Dong R, Li S, Chiang E, Li H 2017. Ap. J. 843:127
  124. Dong R, Liu S-y, Eisner J 2018a. Ap. J. 860:124
  125. Dong R, Najita JR, Brittain S 2018b. Ap. J. 862:103
  126. Dong R, Rafikov R, Zhu Z 2012. Ap. J. 750:161
  127. Dong R, Zhu Z, Rafikov RR, Stone JM 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 809:L5
  128. Draine BT 2006. Ap. J. 636:1114–20
  129. Drżkowska J, Alibert Y 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 608:A92
  130. Drżkowska J, Alibert Y, Moore B 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 594:A105
  131. Dubrulle B, Morfill G, Sterzik M 1995. Icarus 114:237–46
  132. Duchêne G, McCabe C, Pinte C 2010. Ap. J. 712:112–29
  133. Dullemond CP, Birnstiel T, Huang J 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L46
  134. Dullemond CP, Dominik C 2004a. Astron. Astrophys. 417:159–68
  135. Dullemond CP, Dominik C 2004b. Astron. Astrophys. 421:1075–86
  136. Dullemond CP, Dominik C 2005. Astron. Astrophys. 434:971–86
  137. Dullemond CP, Dominik C, Natta A 2001. Ap. J. 560:957–69
  138. Dullemond CP, Isella A, Andrews SM, Skobleva I, Dzyurkevich N 2020. Astron. Astrophys. 633:A137
  139. Dullemond CP, Penzlin ABT 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 609:A50
  140. Dullemond CP, van Zadelhoff GJ, Natta A 2002. Astron. Astrophys. 389:464–74
  141. Dutrey A, Guilloteau S, Simon M 2003. Astron. Astrophys. 402:1003–11
  142. Dzyurkevich N, Turner NJ, Henning T, Kley W 2013. Ap. J. 765:114
  143. Eisner JA, Arce HG, Ballering NP 2018. Ap. J. 860:77
  144. Ercolano B, Pascucci I 2017. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4:170114
  145. Espaillat C, Calvet N, D'Alessio P 2007. Ap. J. Lett. 670:L135–38
  146. Espaillat C, Furlan E, D'Alessio P 2011. Ap. J. 728:49
  147. Espaillat C, Muzerolle J, Najita J 2014.. See Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 497–520
  148. Estrada PR, Cuzzi JN, Morgan DA 2016. Ap. J. 818:200
  149. Facchini S, Birnstiel T, Bruderer S, van Dishoeck EF 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 605:A16
  150. Facchini S, Clarke CJ, Bisbas TG 2016. MNRAS 457:3593–610
  151. Facchini S, Juhász A, Lodato G 2018. MNRAS 473:4459–75
  152. Facchini S, van Dishoeck EF, Manara CF 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 626:L2
  153. Favre C, Cleeves LI, Bergin EA, Qi C, Blake GA 2013. Ap. J. Lett. 776:L38
  154. Finkbeiner DP, Davis M, Schlegel DJ 1999. Ap. J. 524:867–86
  155. Flaherty KM, Hughes AM, Rose SC 2017. Ap. J. 843:150
  156. Flaherty KM, Hughes AM, Rosenfeld KA 2015. Ap. J. 813:99
  157. Flaherty KM, Hughes AM, Teague R 2018. Ap. J. 856:117
  158. Flaherty KM, Muzerolle J, Rieke G 2012. Ap. J. 748:71
  159. Flock M, Dzyurkevich N, Klahr H, Turner NJ, Henning T 2011. Ap. J. 735:122
  160. Flock M, Ruge JP, Dzyurkevich N 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 574:A68
  161. Follette KB, Grady CA, Swearingen JR 2015. Ap. J. 798:132
  162. Fukagawa M, Tamura M, Itoh Y 2010. Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 62:347
  163. Furlan E, Luhman KL, Espaillat C 2011. Ap. J. Suppl. 195:3
  164. Gammie CF 1996. Ap. J. 457:355–62
  165. Gárate M, Birnstiel T, Drżkowska J, Stammler SM 2020. Astron. Astrophys. 635:A149
  166. Garufi A, Benisty M, Pinilla P 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 620:A94
  167. Garufi A, Quanz SP, Schmid HM 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 568:A40
  168. Garufi A, Quanz SP, Schmid HM 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 588:A8
  169. Ginski C, Stolker T, Pinilla P 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 595:A112
  170. Goldreich P, Kylafis ND 1981. Ap. J. Lett. 243:L75–78
  171. Goldreich P, Ward WR 1973. Ap. J. 183:1051–62
  172. Goldreich P, Tremaine S 1980. Ap. J. 241:425–41
  173. Gonzalez JF, Laibe G, Maddison ST 2017. MNRAS 467:1984–96
  174. Grady CA, Muto T, Hashimoto J 2013. Ap. J. 762:48
  175. Greaves JS, Rice WKM 2010. MNRAS 407:1981–88
  176. Guilloteau S, Dutrey A, Piétu V, Boehler Y 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 529:A105
  177. Guilloteau S, Dutrey A, Wakelam V 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 548:A70
  178. Guilloteau S, Piétu V, Chapillon E 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 586:L1
  179. Güttler C, Blum J, Zsom A, Ormel CW, Dullemond CP 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 513:A56
  180. Guzmán VV, Huang J, Andrews SM 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L48
  181. Haffert SY, Bohn AJ, de Boer J 2019. Nat. Astron. 3:749–54
  182. Haisch KE, Lada EA, Lada CJ 2001. Ap. J. Lett. 553:L153–56
  183. Hall C, Dong R, Rice K 2019. Ap. J. 871:228
  184. Harris RJ, Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Kraus AL 2012. Ap. J. 751:115
  185. Hartmann L, Calvet N, Gullbring E, D'Alessio P 1998. Ap. J. 495:385–400
  186. Hashimoto J, Tamura M, Muto T 2011. Ap. J. Lett. 729:L17
  187. Heese S, Wolf S, Dutrey A, Guilloteau S 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 604:A5
  188. Heinemann T, Papaloizou JCB 2009. MNRAS 397:64–74
  189. Hendler N, Pascucci I, Pinilla P 2020. Ap. J. 895:126
  190. Henning T, Stognienko R 1996. Astron. Astrophys. 311:291–303
  191. Hernández J, Hartmann L, Megeath T 2007. Ap. J. 662:1067–81
  192. Hollenbach D, Johnstone D, Lizano S, Shu F 1994. Ap. J. 428:654–69
  193. Huang J, Andrews SM, Cleeves LI 2018a. Ap. J. 852:122
  194. Huang J, Andrews SM, Dullemond CP 2018b. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L42
  195. Huang J, Andrews SM, Pérez LM 2018c. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L43
  196. Hughes AM, Andrews SM, Espaillat C 2009a. Ap. J. 698:131–42
  197. Hughes AM, Wilner DJ, Andrews SM, Qi C, Hogerheijde MR 2011. Ap. J. 727:85
  198. Hughes AM, Wilner DJ, Cho J 2009b. Ap. J. 704:1204–17
  199. Hughes AM, Wilner DJ, Qi C, Hogerheijde MR 2008. Ap. J. 678:1119–26
  200. Hull CLH, Yang H, Li Z-Y 2018. Ap. J. 860:82
  201. Hunter JD 2007. Comp. Sci. Eng. 9:90
  202. Isella A, Carpenter JM, Sargent AI 2009. Ap. J. 701:260–82
  203. Isella A, Carpenter JM, Sargent AI 2010. Ap. J. 714:1746–61
  204. Isella A, Guidi G, Testi L 2016. Phys. Rev. Lett. 117:251101
  205. Isella A, Huang J, Andrews SM 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L49
  206. Isella A, Pérez LM, Carpenter JM 2013. Ap. J. 775:30
  207. Isella A, Testi L, Natta A 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 469:213–22
  208. Jensen ELN, Akeson R 2014. Nature 511:567–69
  209. Jensen ELN, Mathieu RD, Fuller GA 1994. Ap. J. Lett. 429:L29–32
  210. Johansen A, Oishi JS, Mac Low M-M 2007. Nature 448:1022–25
  211. Johansen A, Youdin A, Klahr H 2009. Ap. J. 697:1269–89
  212. Johnstone D, Hollenbach D, Bally J 1998. Ap. J. 499:758–76
  213. Jørgensen JK, van Dishoeck EF, Visser R 2009. Astron. Astrophys. 507:861–79
  214. Juhász A, Rosotti GP 2018. MNRAS 474:L32–36
  215. Kama M, Bruderer S, Carney M 2016a. Astron. Astrophys. 588:A108
  216. Kama M, Pinilla P, Heays AN 2016b. Astron. Astrophys. 593:L20
  217. Kamp I, Dullemond CP 2004. Ap. J. 615:991–99
  218. Kanagawa KD, Tanaka H, Muto T, Tanigawa T, Takeuchi T 2015. MNRAS 448:994–1006
  219. Kataoka A, Muto T, Momose M, Tsukagoshi T, Dullemond CP 2016a. Ap. J. 820:54
  220. Kataoka A, Muto T, Momose M 2015. Ap. J. 809:78
  221. Kataoka A, Okuzumi S, Tazaki R 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 874:L6
  222. Kataoka A, Okuzumi S, Tanaka H, Nomura H 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 568:A42
  223. Kataoka A, Tsukagoshi T, Momose M 2016b. Ap. J. Lett. 831:L12
  224. Kenyon SJ, Hartmann L 1987. Ap. J. 323:714–33
  225. Keppler M, Benisty M, Müller A 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 617:A44
  226. Klahr HH, Bodenheimer P 2003. Ap. J. 582:869–92
  227. Klahr HH, Bodenheimer P 2006. Ap. J. 639:432–40
  228. Klahr HH, Henning T 1997. Icarus 128:213–29
  229. Kley W, Dirksen G 2006. Astron. Astrophys. 447:369–77
  230. Kley W, Nelson RP 2012. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 50:211–49
  231. Kratter K, Lodato G 2016. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 54:271–311
  232. Kraus AL, Ireland MJ, Martinache F, Hillenbrand LA 2011. Ap. J. 731:8
  233. Kraus S, Kreplin A, Fukugawa M 2017. Ap. J. Lett. 848:L11
  234. Krijt S, Ormel CW, Dominik C, Tielens AGGM 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 574:A83
  235. Kudo T, Hashimoto J, Muto T 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 868:L5
  236. Kurtovic NT, Pérez LM, Benisty M 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L44
  237. Laibe G, Gonzalez JF, Maddison ST 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 537:A61
  238. Lambrechts M, Johansen A 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 544:A32
  239. Laughlin G, Bodenheimer P 1994. Ap. J. 436:335–54
  240. Lesur G, Hennebelle P, Fromang S 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 582:L9
  241. Li Z-Y, Banerjee R, Pudritz RE 2014.. See Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 173–94
  242. Lin DNC, Papaloizou J 1979. MNRAS 186:799–812
  243. Lin DNC, Papaloizou J 1986. Ap. J. 309:846–57
  244. Liu HB 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 877:L22
  245. Lodato G, Dipierro G, Ragusa E 2019. MNRAS 486:453–61
  246. Lommen DJP, van Dishoeck EF, Wright CM 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 515:A77
  247. Long F, Herczeg GJ, Harsono D 2019. Ap. J. 882:49
  248. Long F, Herczeg GJ, Pascucci I 2017. Ap. J. 844:99
  249. Long F, Herczeg GJ, Pascucci I 2018a. Ap. J. 863:61
  250. Long F, Pinilla P, Herczeg GJ 2018b. Ap. J. 869:17
  251. Loomis RA, Öberg KI, Andrews SM, MacGregor MA 2017. Ap. J. 840:23
  252. Lorén-Aguilar P, Bate MR 2015. MNRAS 453:L78–82
  253. Lorén-Aguilar P, Bate MR 2016. MNRAS 457:L54–58
  254. Louvet F, Dougados C, Cabrit S 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 618:A120
  255. Lovelace RVE, Li H, Colgate SA 1999. Ap. J. 513:805–10
  256. Lynden-Bell D, Pringle JE 1974. MNRAS 168:603–37
  257. Lyra W, Johansen A, Zsom A, Klahr H, Piskunov N 2009. Astron. Astrophys. 497:869–88
  258. Lyra W, Lin MK 2013. Ap. J. 775:17
  259. Manara CF, Rosotti G, Testi L 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 591:L3
  260. Manara CF, Morbidelli A, Guillot T 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 618:L3
  261. Manara CF, Tazzari M, Long F 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 628:A95
  262. Mann RK, Di Francesco J, Johnstone D 2014. Ap. J. 784:82
  263. Mann RK, Williams JP 2009. Ap. J. Lett. 694:L36–40
  264. Mann RK, Williams JP 2010. Ap. J. 725:430–42
  265. Marino S, Pérez S, Casassus S 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 798:L44
  266. Maury AJ, André P, Testi L 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 621:A76
  267. Mayama S, Hashimoto J, Muto T 2012. Ap. J. Lett. 760:L26
  268. McCabe C, Duchêne G, Pinte C 2011. Ap. J. 727:90
  269. McClure MK, Bergin EA, Cleeves LI 2016. Ap. J. 831:167
  270. Menu J, van Boekel R, Henning T 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 564:A93
  271. Miguel Y, Guilera OM, Brunini A 2011. MNRAS 412:2113–24
  272. Min M, Rab C, Woitke P, Dominik C, Ménard F 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 585:A13
  273. Miotello A, Bruderer S, van Dishoeck EF 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 572:A96
  274. Miotello A, Facchini S, van Dishoeck EF, Bruderer S 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 619:A113
  275. Miotello A, van Dishoeck EF, Kama M, Bruderer S 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 594:A85
  276. Miotello A, van Dishoeck EF, Williams JP 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 599:A113
  277. Miyake K, Nakagawa Y 1993. Icarus 106:20–41
  278. Monnier JD, Harries TJ, Aarnio A 2017. Ap. J. 838:20
  279. Monnier JD, Harries TJ, Bae J 2019. Ap. J. 872:122
  280. Montesinos M, Pérez S, Casassus S 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 823:L8
  281. Mulders GD 2018. Handbook of Exoplanets HJ Deeg, JA Belmonte 2009–34 Cham, Switz.: Springer
  282. Mulders GD, Dominik C 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 539:A9
  283. Müller A, Keppler M, Henning T 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 617:L2
  284. Muro-Arena GA, Dominik C, Waters LBFM 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 614:A24
  285. Muto T, Grady CA, Hashimoto J 2012. Ap. J. Lett. 748:L22
  286. Muzerolle J, Flaherty K, Balog Z 2009. Ap. J. Lett. 704:L15–19
  287. Najita JR, Kenyon SJ 2014. MNRAS 445:3315–29
  288. Nakagawa Y, Sekiya M, Hayashi C 1986. Icarus 67:375–90
  289. Natta A 1993. Ap. J. 412:761–70
  290. Nealon R, Dipierro G, Alexander R, Martin RG, Nixon C 2018. MNRAS 481:20–35
  291. Nealon R, Pinte C, Alexander R, Mentiplay D, Dipierro G 2019. MNRAS 484:4951–62
  292. Nixon CJ, King AR, Pringle JE 2018. MNRAS 477:3273–78
  293. Öberg KI, Qi C, Fogel JKJ 2011. Ap. J. 734:98
  294. Ohashi S, Kataoka A, Nagai H 2018. Ap. J. 864:81
  295. Okuzumi S, Momose M, Sirono S-I, Kobayashi H, Tanaka H 2016. Ap. J. 821:82
  296. Okuzumi S, Tanaka H, Kobayashi H, Wada K 2012. Ap. J. 752:106
  297. Ormel CW, Klahr HH 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 520:A43
  298. Owen JE, Lai D 2017. MNRAS 469:2834–44
  299. Paardekooper S-J, Mellema G 2006. Astron. Astrophys. 453:1129–40
  300. Pan L, Padoan P, Scalo J 2011. Ap. J. 740:6
  301. Panić O, Hogerheijde MR, Wilner D, Qi C 2009. Astron. Astrophys. 501:269–78
  302. Pascucci I, Testi L, Herczeg GJ 2016. Ap. J. 831:125
  303. Pérez LM, Benisty M, Andrews SM 2018a. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L50
  304. Pérez LM, Carpenter JM, Andrews SM 2016. Science 353:1519–21
  305. Pérez LM, Carpenter JM, Chandler CJ 2012. Ap. J. Lett. 760:L17
  306. Pérez LM, Chandler CJ, Isella A 2015a. Ap. J. Lett. 813:41
  307. Pérez LM, Isella A, Carpenter JM, Chandler CJ 2014. Ap. J. Lett. 783:L13
  308. Pérez S, Casassus S, Baruteau C 2019. Astron. J. 158:15
  309. Pérez S, Casassus S, Benítez-Llambay P 2018b. MNRAS 480:L12–17
  310. Pérez S, Dunhill A, Casassus S 2015b. Ap. J. Lett. 811:L5
  311. Pfalzner S 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 549:A82
  312. Piétu V, Dutrey A, Guilloteau S 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 467:163–78
  313. Piétu V, Guilloteau S, Di Folco E, Dutrey A, Boehler Y 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 564:A95
  314. Pinilla P, Benisty M, Birnstiel T 2012a. Astron. Astrophys. 545:A81
  315. Pinilla P, Benisty M, de Boer J 2018a. Ap. J. 868:85
  316. Pinilla P, Birnstiel T, Ricci L 2012b. Astron. Astrophys. 538:A114
  317. Pinilla P, Birnstiel T, Benisty M 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 554:A95
  318. Pinilla P, Natta A, Manara CF 2018b. Astron. Astrophys. 615:A95
  319. Pinilla P, Pérez LM, Andrews S 2017a. Ap. J. 839:99
  320. Pinilla P, Pohl A, Stammler SM, Birnstiel T 2017b. Ap. J. 845:68
  321. Pinilla P, Quiroga-Nuñez LH, Benisty M 2017c. Ap. J. 846:70
  322. Pinilla P, Tazzari M, Pascucci I 2018c. Ap. J. 859:32
  323. Pinte C, Dent WRF, Ménard F 2016. Ap. J. 816:25
  324. Pinte C, Fouchet L, Ménard F, Gonzalez J-F, Duchêne G 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 469:963–71
  325. Pinte C, Ménard F, Duchêne G 2018a. Astron. Astrophys. 609:A47
  326. Pinte C, Padgett DL, Ménard F 2008. Astron. Astrophys. 489:633–50
  327. Pinte C, Price DJ, Ménard F 2018b. Ap. J. Lett. 860:L13
  328. Pinte C, van der Plas G, Ménard F 2019. Nat. Astron. 3:1109–14
  329. Pollack JB, Hollenbach D, Beckwith S 1994. Ap. J. 421:615–39
  330. Powell D, Murray-Clay R, Schlichting HE 2017. Ap. J. 840:93
  331. Qi C, D'Alessio P, Öberg KI 2011. Ap. J. 740:84
  332. Qi C, Öberg KI, Espaillat CC 2019. Ap. J. 882:160
  333. Quanz SP, Avenhaus H, Buenzli E 2013. Ap. J. Lett. 766:L2
  334. Quanz SP, Schmid HM, Geissler K 2011. Ap. J. 738:23
  335. Rafikov RR 2016. Ap. J. 831:122
  336. Raghavan D, McAlister HA, Henry TJ 2010. Ap. J. Suppl. 190:1–42
  337. Rapson VA, Kastner JH, Andrews SM 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 803:L10
  338. Reboussin L, Wakelam V, Guilloteau S, Hersant F, Dutrey A 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 579:A82
  339. Rebull LM, Cody AM, Covey KR 2014. Astron. J. 148:92
  340. Regály Z, Juhász A, Sándor Z 2012. MNRAS 419:1701–12
  341. Ricci L, Isella A, Carpenter JM, Testi L 2013. Ap. J. Lett. 764:L27
  342. Ricci L, Testi L, Natta A, Brooks KJ 2010a. Astron. Astrophys. 521:A66
  343. Ricci L, Testi L, Natta A 2010b. Astron. Astrophys. 512:A15
  344. Ricci L, Testi L, Natta A 2014. Ap. J. 791:20
  345. Ricci L, Trotta F, Testi L 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 540:A6
  346. Rice WKM, Armitage PJ, Wood K, Lodato G 2006. MNRAS 373:1619–26
  347. Rice WKM, Lodato G, Pringle JE, Armitage PJ, Bonnell IA 2004. MNRAS 355:543
  348. Richard S, Nelson RP, Umurhan OM 2016. MNRAS 456:3571–84
  349. Rodriguez JE, Loomis R, Cabrit S 2018. Ap. J. 859:150
  350. Ros K, Johansen A 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 552:A137
  351. Ros K, Johansen A, Riipinen I, Schlesinger D 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 629:A65
  352. Rosenfeld KA, Andrews SM, Hughes AM, Wilner DJ, Qi C 2013. Ap. J. 774:16
  353. Rosenfeld KA, Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Stempels HC 2012a. Ap. J. 759:119
  354. Rosenfeld KA, Chiang E, Andrews SM 2014. Ap. J. 782:62
  355. Rosenfeld KA, Qi C, Andrews SM 2012b. Ap. J. 757:129
  356. Rosotti GP, Booth RA, Tazzari M 2019a. MNRAS 486:L63–68
  357. Rosotti GP, Dale JE, de Juan Ovelar M 2014. MNRAS 441:2094–110
  358. Rosotti GP, Juhasz A, Booth RA, Clarke CJ 2016. MNRAS 459:2790–805
  359. Rosotti GP, Tazzari M, Booth RA 2019b. MNRAS 486:4829–44
  360. Ruge JP, Flock M, Wolf S 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 590:A17
  361. Ruíz-Rodríguez D, Cieza LA, Williams JP 2018. MNRAS 478:3674–92
  362. Saito E, Sirono S-i 2011. Ap. J. 728:20
  363. Schneider G, Wood K, Silverstone MD 2003. Astron. J. 125:1467–79
  364. Schoonenberg D, Ormel CW 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 602:A21
  365. Schwarz KR, Bergin EA, Cleeves LI 2016. Ap. J. 823:91
  366. Segura-Cox DM, Looney LW, Tobin JJ 2018. Ap. J. 866:161
  367. Shariff K, Cuzzi JN 2011. Ap. J. 738:73
  368. Sheehan PD, Eisner JA 2017. Ap. J. 851:45
  369. Shi JM, Chiang E 2014. Ap. J. 789:34
  370. Simon JB, Armitage PJ 2014. Ap. J. 784:15
  371. Simon M, Guilloteau S, Di Folco E 2017. Ap. J. 844:158
  372. Sirono S-I 2011. Ap. J. 735:131
  373. Stammler SM, Birnstiel T, Panić O, Dullemond CP, Dominik C 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 600:A140
  374. Stammler SM, Drżkowska J, Birnstiel T 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 884:L5
  375. Stephens IW, Yang H, Li Z-Y 2017. Ap. J. 851:55
  376. Stevenson DJ, Lunine JI 1988. Icarus 75:146–55
  377. Stolker T, Dominik C, Min M 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 596:A70
  378. Stolker T, Sitko M, Lazareff B 2017. Ap. J. 849:143
  379. Störzer H, Hollenbach D 1999. Ap. J. 515:669–84
  380. Suriano SS, Li Z-Y, Krasnopolsky R, Shang H 2017. MNRAS 468:3850–68
  381. Suriano SS, Li Z-Y, Krasnopolsky R, Shang H 2018. MNRAS 477:1239–57
  382. Surville C, Mayer L, Lin DNC 2016. Ap. J. 831:82
  383. Suzuki TK, Ogihara M, Morbidelli AR, Crida A, Guillot T 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 596:A74
  384. Takahashi SZ, Inutsuka S-I 2005. Ap. J. 623:482–92
  385. Takahashi SZ, Inutsuka S-I 2014. Ap. J. 794:55
  386. Takahashi SZ, Inutsuka S-I 2016. Astron. J. 152:184
  387. Takahashi SZ, Muto T 2018. Ap. J. 865:102
  388. Takeuchi T, Lin DNC 2002. Ap. J. 581:1344–55
  389. Tang Y-W, Guilloteau S, Dutrey A 2017. Ap. J. 840:32
  390. Tang Y-W, Guilloteau S, Piétu V 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 547:A84
  391. Tazaki R, Lazarian A, Nomura H 2017. Ap. J. 839:56
  392. Tazzari M, Testi L, Ercolano B 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 588:A53
  393. Tazzari M, Testi L, Natta A 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 606:A88
  394. Teague R, Bae J, Bergin EA, Birnstiel T, Foreman-Mackey D 2018a. Ap. J. Lett. 860:L12
  395. Teague R, Bae J, Birnstiel T, Bergin EA 2018b. Ap. J. 868:113
  396. Teague R, Bae J, Huang J, Bergin EA 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 884:L56
  397. Teague R, Henning T, Guilloteau S 2018c. Ap. J. 864:133
  398. Teague R, Guilloteau S, Semenov D 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 592:A49
  399. Teiser J, Wurm G 2009. MNRAS 393:1584–94
  400. Terebey S, Shu FH, Cassen P 1984. Ap. J. 286:529–51
  401. Testi L, Birnstiel T, Ricci L 2014. Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 339–61
  402. Testi L, Natta A, Scholz A 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 593:A111
  403. Thamm E, Steinacker J, Henning T 1994. Astron. Astrophys. 287:493–502
  404. Tobin JJ, Kratter KM, Persson MV 2016. Nature 538:483–86
  405. Tobin JJ, Looney LW, Wilner DJ 2015. Ap. J. 805:125
  406. Tomida K, Machida MN, Hosokawa T, Sakurai Y, Lin CH 2017. Ap. J. Lett. 835:L11
  407. Toomre A 1964. Ap. J. 139:1217–38
  408. Trapman L, Facchini S, Hogerheijde MR, van Dishoeck EF, Bruderer S 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 629:A79
  409. Trapman L, Miotello A, Kama M, van Dishoeck EF, Bruderer S 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 605:A69
  410. Tripathi A, Andrews SM, Birnstiel T, Wilner DJ 2017. Ap. J. 845:44
  411. Tripathi A, Andrews SM, Birnstiel T 2018. Ap. J. 861:64
  412. Tsukagoshi T, Momose M, Kitamura Y 2019a. Ap. J. 871:5
  413. Tsukagoshi T, Muto T, Nomura H 2019b. Ap. J. Lett. 878:L8
  414. Tsukagoshi T, Nomura H, Muto T 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 829:L35
  415. Turner NJ, Carballido A, Sano T 2010. Ap. J. 708:188–201
  416. Turner NJ, Fromang S, Gammie C 2014.. See Beuther et al. 2014, pp. 411–32
  417. Tychoniec L, Tobin JJ, Karska A 2018. Ap. J. Suppl. 238:19
  418. Uribe AL, Klahr H, Flock M, Henning T 2011. Ap. J. 736:85
  419. van Boekel R, Henning T, Menu J 2017. Ap. J. 837:132
  420. van Boekel R, Waters LBFM, Dominik C 2004. Astron. Astrophys. 418:177–84
  421. van der Marel N, Cazzoletti P, Pinilla P, Garufi A 2016a. Ap. J. 832:178
  422. van der Marel N, Dong R, Di Francesco J, Williams JP, Tobin J 2019. Ap. J. 872:112
  423. van der Marel N, Pinilla P, Tobin J 2015a. Ap. J. Lett. 810:L7
  424. van der Marel N, van Dishoeck EF, Bruderer S, Pérez LM, Isella A 2015b. Astron. Astrophys. 579:A106
  425. van der Marel N, van Dishoeck EF, Bruderer S 2013. Science 340:1199–202
  426. van der Marel N, van Dishoeck EF, Bruderer S 2016b. Astron. Astrophys. 585:A58
  427. van der Marel N, Verhaar BW, van Terwisga S 2016c. Astron. Astrophys. 592:A126
  428. van der Marel N, Williams JP, Ansdell M 2018a. Ap. J. 854:177
  429. van der Marel N, Williams JP, Bruderer S 2018b. Ap. J. Lett. 867:L14
  430. van der Plas G, Ménard F, Canovas H 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 607:A55
  431. van der Plas G, Ménard F, Ward-Duong K 2016. Ap. J. 819:102
  432. van der Walt S, Colbert SC, Varoquaux G 2011. Comp. Sci. Eng. 13:22
  433. van Terwisga SE, Hacar A, van Dishoeck EF 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 628:A85
  434. van Terwisga SE, van Dishoeck EF, Ansdell M 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 616:A88
  435. van Zadelhoff G-J, van Dishoeck EF, Thi W-F, Blake GA 2001. Astron. Astrophys. 377:566–80
  436. Villenave M, Benisty M, Dent WRF 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 624:A7
  437. Ward-Duong K, Patience J, Bulger J 2018. Astron. J. 155:54
  438. Weaver E, Isella A, Boehler J 2018. Ap. J. 853:113
  439. Weidenschilling SJ 1977a. Ap. Space Sci. 51:153–58
  440. Weidenschilling SJ 1977b. MNRAS 180:57–70
  441. Weinberger AJ, Becklin EE, Schneider G 2002. Ap. J. 566:409–18
  442. Whipple FL 1972.. In From Plasma to Planet, ed. A Elvius, pp. 211–32 New York: Wiley
  443. Williams JP, Best WMJ 2014. Ap. J. 788:59
  444. Williams JP, Cieza L, Hales A 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 875:L9
  445. Williams JP, Cieza LA 2011. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 49:67–117
  446. Williams JP, Mann RK, Di Francesco J 2014. Ap. J. 796:120
  447. Williams JP, McPartland C 2016. Ap. J. 830:32
  448. Windmark F, Birnstiel T, Güttler C 2012a. Astron. Astrophys. 540:A73
  449. Windmark F, Birnstiel T, Ormel CW, Dullemond CP 2012b. Astron. Astrophys. 544:L16
  450. Winter AJ, Booth RA, Clarke CJ 2018. MNRAS 479:5522–31
  451. Woitke P, Min M, Pinte C 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 586:A103
  452. Wünsch R, Klahr H, Różyczka M 2005. MNRAS 362:361–68
  453. Xiang-Gruess M 2016. MNRAS 455:3086–100
  454. Yang CC, Johansen A, Carrera D 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 606:A80
  455. Yang H, Li Z-Y, Looney LW, Girart JM, Stephens IW 2017. MNRAS 472:373–88
  456. Youdin AN 2011. Ap. J. 731:99
  457. Youdin AN, Goodman J 2005. Ap. J. 620:459–69
  458. Youdin AN, Shu FH 2002. Ap. J. 580:494–505
  459. Yu M, Evans NJ, Dodson-Robinson SE, Willacy K, Turner NJ 2017. Ap. J. 841:39
  460. Yu M, Willacy K, Dodson-Robinson SE, Turner NJ, Evans NJ 2016. Ap. J. 822:53
  461. Yu S-Y, Ho LC, Zhu Z 2019. Ap. J. 877:100
  462. Zhang K, Bergin EA, Blake GA, Cleeves LI, Schwarz KR 2017. Nat. Astron. 1:0130
  463. Zhang K, Bergin EA, Blake GA 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 818:L16
  464. Zhang K, Bergin EA, Schwarz KR 2019. Ap. J. 883:98
  465. Zhang K, Blake GA, Bergin EA 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 806:L7
  466. Zhang S, Zhu Z, Huang J 2018. Ap. J. Lett. 869:L47
  467. Zhu Z 2019. MNRAS 483:4221–41
  468. Zhu Z, Dong R, Stone JM, Rafikov RR 2015. Ap. J. 813:88
  469. Zhu Z, Nelson RP, Dong R, Espaillat C, Hartmann L 2012. Ap. J. 755:6
  470. Zhu Z, Nelson RP, Hartmann L, Espaillat C, Calvet N 2011. Ap. J. 729:47
  471. Zhu Z, Stone JM, Rafikov RR, Bai X-N 2014. Ap. J. 785:122
  472. Zhu Z, Zhang S, Jiang YF 2019. Ap. J. Lett. 877:L18
  473. Zsom A, Ormel CW, Güttler C, Blum J, Dullemond CP 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 513:A57
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-031220-010302
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-031220-010302
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error