1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering
  4. Volume 20, 2018
  5. Article

Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering

Volume 20, 2018

Facet Joints of the Spine: Structure–Function Relationships, Problems and Treatments, and the Potential for Regeneration

Abstract

The zygapophysial joint, a diarthrodial joint commonly referred to as the facet joint, plays a pivotal role in back pain, a condition that has been a leading cause of global disability since 1990. Along with the intervertebral disc, the facet joint supports spinal motion and aids in spinal stability. Highly susceptible to early development of osteoarthritis, the facet is responsible for a significant amount of pain in the low-back, mid-back, and neck regions. Current noninvasive treatments cannot offer long-term pain relief, while invasive treatments can relieve pain but fail to preserve joint functionality. This review presents an overview of the facet in terms of its anatomy, functional properties, problems, and current management strategies. Furthermore, this review introduces the potential for regeneration of the facet and particular engineering strategies that could be employed as a long-term treatment.

Keyword(s): biomechanics, facet joint, osteoarthritis, spinal stenosis, tissue engineering, zygapophysial joint
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924
2018-06-04
2024-04-18
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/20/1/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.  Pal GP, Routal RV 1987. Transmission of weight through the lower thoracic and lumbar regions of the vertebral column in man. J. Anat. 152:93–105
     [Google Scholar]
  2. 2.  Aarabi B, Walters BC, Dhall SS, Gelb DE, Hurlbert RJ et al. 2013. Subaxial cervical spine injury classification systems. Neurosurgery 72:170–86
     [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.  Crawford NR, Duggal N, Chamberlain RH, Park SC, Sonntag VK, Dickman CA 2002. Unilateral cervical facet dislocation: injury mechanism and biomechanical consequences. Spine 27:1858–64
     [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.  Dvorak MF, Fisher CG, Aarabi B, Harris MB, Hurbert RJ et al. 2007. Clinical outcomes of 90 isolated unilateral facet fractures, subluxations, and dislocations treated surgically and nonoperatively. Spine 32:3007–13
     [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.  Li J, Muehleman C, Abe Y, Masuda K 2011. Prevalence of facet joint degeneration in association with intervertebral joint degeneration in a sample of organ donors. J. Orthop. Res. 29:1267–74
     [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.  Eubanks JD, Lee MJ, Cassinelli E, Ahn NU 2007. Prevalence of lumbar facet arthrosis and its relationship to age, sex, and race: an anatomic study of cadaveric specimens. Spine 32:2058–62
     [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.  Suri P, Hunter DJ, Rainville J, Guermazi A, Katz JN 2013. Presence and extent of severe facet joint osteoarthritis are associated with back pain in older adults. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 21:1199–206
     [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.  Genevay S, Atlas SJ 2010. Lumbar spinal stenosis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 24:253–65
     [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.  Weinstein JN, Lurie JD, Olson P, Bronner KK, Fisher ES, Morgan MTS 2006. United States trends and regional variations in lumbar spine surgery: 1992–2003. Spine 31:2707–12
     [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.  Newman P, Stone K 1963. The etiology of spondylolisthesis. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 45:39–59
     [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.  Vanderpool DW, James JI, Wynne-Davies R 1969. Scoliosis in the elderly. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 51:446–55
     [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.  Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, Arnold LM, Choi H et al. 2008. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States. Part II. Arthritis Rheum 58:26–35
     [Google Scholar]
  13. 13. Natl. Cent. Health Stat. 2012. Health, United States, 2011: With Special Feature on Socioeconomic Status and Health Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Cent. Health Stat.
  14. 14.  Katz JN 2006. Lumbar disc disorders and low-back pain: socioeconomic factors and consequences. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 88:Suppl. 221–24
     [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.  Gaskin DJ, Richard P 2012. The economic costs of pain in the United States. J. Pain 13:715–24
     [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.  Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Singh V, Falco FJ 2013. Assessment of the escalating growth of facet joint interventions in the Medicare population in the United States from 2000 to 2011. Pain Phys 16:E365–78
     [Google Scholar]
  17. 17.  Manchikanti L, Pampati S, Cash KA 2010. Making sense of the accuracy of diagnostic lumbar facet joint nerve blocks: an assessment of the implications of 50% relief, 80% relief, single block, or controlled diagnostic blocks. Pain Phys 13:133–43
     [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.  Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Singh V, Beyer C, Damron K, Fellows B 2001. Evaluation of the role of facet joints in persistent low back pain in obesity: a controlled, prospective, comparative evaluation. Pain Phys 4:266–72
     [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.  Manchikanti L, Hirsch JA, Pampati V 2003. Chronic low back pain of facet (zygapophysial) joint origin: Is there a difference based on involvement of single or multiple spinal regions?. Pain Phys 6:399–405
     [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.  Manchikanti L, Singh V, Pampati V, Damron KS, Beyer CD, Barnhill RC 2002. Is there correlation of facet joint pain in lumbar and cervical spine? An evaluation of prevalence in combined chronic low back and neck pain. Pain Phys 5:365–71
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.  Manchikanti L, Boswell MV, Singh V, Pampati V, Damron KS, Beyer CD 2004. Prevalence of facet joint pain in chronic spinal pain of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 5:15
     [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.  Manchukonda R, Manchikanti KN, Cash KA, Pampati V, Manchikanti L 2007. Facet joint pain in chronic spinal pain: an evaluation of prevalence and false-positive rate of diagnostic blocks. J. Spinal Disord. Tech. 20:539–45
     [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.  Manchikanti L, Manchukonda R, Pampati V, Damron KS, McManus CD 2007. Prevalence of facet joint pain in chronic low back pain in postsurgical patients by controlled comparative local anesthetic blocks. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 88:449–55
     [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.  Manchikanti L, Singh V, Pampati V, Beyer CD, Damron KS 2002. Evaluation of the prevalence of facet joint pain in chronic thoracic pain. Pain Phys 5:354–59
     [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.  Boswell MV, Colson JD, Sehgal N, Dunbar EE, Epter R 2007. A systematic review of therapeutic facet joint interventions in chronic spinal pain. Pain Phys 10:229–53
     [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.  Sears WR, Sergides IG, Kazemi N, Smith M, White GJ, Osburg B 2011. Incidence and prevalence of surgery at segments adjacent to a previous posterior lumbar arthrodesis. Spine J 11:11–20
     [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.  Park P, Garton HJ, Gala VC, Hoff JT, McGillicuddy JE 2004. Adjacent segment disease after lumbar or lumbosacral fusion: review of the literature. Spine 29:1938–44
     [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.  Serhan H, Mhatre D, Defossez H, Bono CM 2011. Motion-preserving technologies for degenerative lumbar spine: the past, present, and future horizons. SAS J 5:75–89
     [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.  Cohen SP, Huang JH, Brummett C 2013. Facet joint pain—advances in patient selection and treatment. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 9:101–16
     [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.  Boswell MV, Manchikanti L, Kaye AD, Bakshi S, Gharibo CG et al. 2015. A best-evidence systematic appraisal of the diagnostic accuracy and utility of facet (zygapophysial) joint injections in chronic spinal pain. Pain Phys 18:E497–533
     [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.  Jaumard NV, Welch WC, Winkelstein BA 2011. Spinal facet joint biomechanics and mechanotransduction in normal, injury and degenerative conditions. J. Biomech. Eng. 133:071010
     [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.  Pal GP, Routal RV, Saggu SK 2001. The orientation of the articular facets of the zygapophyseal joints at the cervical and upper thoracic region. J. Anat. 198:431–41
     [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.  Masharawi Y, Rothschild B, Dar G, Peleg S, Robinson D et al. 2004. Facet orientation in the thoracolumbar spine: three-dimensional anatomic and biomechanical analysis. Spine 29:1755–63
     [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.  Tulsi RS, Hermanis GM 1993. A study of the angle of inclination and facet curvature of superior lumbar zygapophyseal facets. Spine 18:1311–17
     [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.  McLain RF, Yerby SA, Moseley TA 2002. Comparative morphometry of L4 vertebrae: comparison of large animal models for the human lumbar spine. Spine 27:E200–6
     [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.  Pal GP, Routal RV 1999. Mechanism of change in the orientation of the articular process of the zygapophyseal joint at the thoracolumbar junction. J. Anat. 195:199–209
     [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.  O'Leary SA, Link JM, Klineberg EO, Hu JC, Athanasiou KA 2017. Characterization of facet joint cartilage properties in the human and interspecies comparisons. Acta Biomater 54:367–76
     [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.  Elder BD, Vigneswaran K, Athanasiou KA, Kim DH 2009. Biomechanical, biochemical, and histological characterization of canine lumbar facet joint cartilage. J. Neurosurg. Spine 10:623–28
     [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.  Abd Latif MJ, Jin Z, Wilcox RK 2012. Biomechanical characterisation of ovine spinal facet joint cartilage. J. Biomech. 45:1346–52
     [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.  Farrell SF, Osmotherly PG, Cornwall J, Rivett DA 2015. The anatomy and morphometry of cervical zygapophyseal joint meniscoids. Surg. Radiol. Anat. 37:799–807
     [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.  Little JS, Khalsa PS 2005. Material properties of the human lumbar facet joint capsule. J. Biomech. Eng. 127:15–24
     [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.  Kallakuri S, Li Y, Chen C, Cavanaugh JM 2012. Innervation of cervical ventral facet joint capsule: histological evidence. World J. Orthop. 3:10–14
     [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.  Zhou L, Schneck CD, Shao Z 2012. The anatomy of dorsal ramus nerves and its implications in lower back pain. Neurosci. Med. 3:192–201
     [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.  Takigawa T, Espinoza Orias AA, An HS, Gohgi S, Udayakumar RK et al. 2010. Spinal kinematics and facet load transmission after total disc replacement. Spine 35:E1160–66
     [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.  Pal GP, Routal RV 1986. A study of weight transmission through the cervical and upper thoracic regions of the vertebral column in man. J. Anat. 148:245–61
     [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.  Raynor RB, Moskovich R, Zidel P, Pugh J 1987. Alterations in primary and coupled neck motions after facetectomy. Neurosurgery 21:681–87
     [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.  Li W, Wang S, Xia Q, Passias P, Kozanek M et al. 2011. Lumbar facet joint motion in patients with degenerative disc disease at affected and adjacent levels: an in vivo biomechanical study. Spine 36:E629–37
     [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.  Adams MA, Hutton WC 1983. The mechanical function of the lumbar apophyseal joints. Spine 8:327–30
     [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.  Dreischarf M, Schmidt H, Putzier M, Zander T 2015. Biomechanics of the L5-S1 motion segment after total disc replacement—influence of iatrogenic distraction, implant positioning and preoperative disc height on the range of motion and loading of facet joints. J. Biomech. 48:3283–91
     [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.  Bauman JA, Jaumard NV, Guarino BB, Weisshaar CL, Lipschutz DE et al. 2012. Facet joint contact pressure is not significantly affected by ProDisc cervical disc arthroplasty in sagittal bending: a single-level cadaveric study. Spine J 12:949–59
     [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.  Vaccaro A, Koerner J, Radcliff K, Oner FC, Reinhold M et al. 2015. AOSpine subaxial cervical spine injury classification system. Eur. Spine J. 25:2173–84
     [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.  Hasler RM, Exadaktylos AK, Bouamra O, Benneker LM, Clancy M et al. 2012. Epidemiology and predictors of cervical spine injury in adult major trauma patients: a multicenter cohort study. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 72:975–81
     [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.  Kuster D, Gibson A, Abboud R, Drew T 2012. Mechanisms of cervical spine injury in rugby union: a systematic review of the literature. Br. J. Sports Med. 46:550–54
     [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.  Beyer CA, Cabanela ME 1992. Unilateral facet dislocations and fracture-dislocations of the cervical spine: a review. Orthopedics 15:311–15
     [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.  Nadeau M, McLachlin SD, Bailey SI, Gurr KR, Dunning CE, Bailey CS 2012. A biomechanical assessment of soft-tissue damage in the cervical spine following a unilateral facet injury. J. Bone Joint Surg. 94:e156
     [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.  Sim E, Vaccaro AR, Berzlanovich A, Schwarz N, Sim B 2001. In vitro genesis of subaxial cervical unilateral facet dislocations through sequential soft tissue ablation. Spine 26:1317–23
     [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.  Vaccaro AR, Madigan L, Schweitzer ME, Flanders AE, Hilibrand AS, Albert TJ 2001. Magnetic resonance imaging analysis of soft tissue disruption after flexion-distraction injuries of the subaxial cervical spine. Spine 26:1866–72
     [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.  Lowery DW, Wald MM, Browne BJ, Tigges S, Hoffman JR, Mower WR 2001. Epidemiology of cervical spine injury victims. Ann. Emerg. Med. 38:12–16
     [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.  Reinhold M, Audige L, Schnake KJ, Bellabarba C, Dai LY, Oner FC 2013. AOSpine injury classification system: a revision proposal for the thoracic and lumbar spine. Eur. Spine J. 22:2184–201
     [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.  Bogduk N 2008. Evidence-informed management of chronic low back pain with facet injections and radiofrequency neurotomy. Spine J 8:56–64
     [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.  Manchikanti L, Singh V, Pampati V, Damron KS, Barnhill RC et al. 2001. Evaluation of the relative contributions of various structures in chronic low back pain. Pain Phys 4:308–16
     [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.  Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Rivera J, Fellows B, Beyer C, Damron K 2001. Role of facet joints in chronic low back pain in the elderly: a controlled comparative prevalence study. Pain Pract 1:332–37
     [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.  Gellhorn AC, Katz JN, Suri P 2013. Osteoarthritis of the spine: the facet joints. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 9:216–24
     [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.  Kim JS, Ali MH, Wydra F, Li X, Hamilton JL et al. 2015. Characterization of degenerative human facet joints and facet joint capsular tissues. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 23:2242–51
     [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.  Kalichman L, Kim DH, Li L, Guermazi A, Hunter DJ 2010. Computed tomography–evaluated features of spinal degeneration: prevalence, intercorrelation, and association with self-reported low back pain. Spine J 10:200–8
     [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.  Ko S, Vaccaro AR, Lee S, Lee J, Chang H 2014. The prevalence of lumbar spine facet joint osteoarthritis and its association with low back pain in selected Korean populations. Clin. Orthop. Surg. 6:385–91
     [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.  Fujiwara A, Tamai K, Yamato M, An HS, Yoshida H et al. 1999. The relationship between facet joint osteoarthritis and disc degeneration of the lumbar spine: an MRI study. Eur. Spine J. 8:396–401
     [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.  Maataoui A, Vogl TJ, Middendorp M, Kafchitsas K, Khan MF 2014. Association between facet joint osteoarthritis and the Oswestry Disability Index. World J. Radiol. 6:881–85
     [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.  Butler D, Trafimow JH, Andersson GB, McNeill TW, Huckman MS 1990. Discs degenerate before facets. Spine 15:111–13
     [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.  Suri P, Miyakoshi A, Hunter DJ, Jarvik JG, Rainville J et al. 2011. Does lumbar spinal degeneration begin with the anterior structures? A study of the observed epidemiology in a community-based population. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 12:202
     [Google Scholar]
  71. 71.  Goode AP, Marshall SW, Renner JB, Carey TS, Kraus VB et al. 2012. Lumbar spine radiographic features and demographic, clinical, and radiographic knee, hip, and hand osteoarthritis. Arthritis Care Res 64:1536–44
     [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.  Kalichman L, Suri P, Guermazi A, Li L, Hunter DJ 2009. Facet orientation and tropism: associations with facet joint osteoarthritis and degeneratives. Spine 34:E579–85
     [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.  Linov L, Klindukhov A, Li L, Kalichman L 2013. Lumbar facet joint orientation and osteoarthritis: a cross-sectional study. J. Back Musculoskelet. Rehabil. 26:421–26
     [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.  Fujiwara A, Tamai K, An HS, Lim TH, Yoshida H et al. 2001. Orientation and osteoarthritis of the lumbar facet joint. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 2001:88–94
     [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.  Park MS, Lee YB, Moon S-H, Lee H-M, Kim T-H et al. 2014. Facet joint degeneration of the cervical spine: a computed tomographic analysis of 320 patients. Spine 39:E713–18
     [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.  Uhrenholt L, Hauge E, Charles AV, Gregersen M 2008. Degenerative and traumatic changes in the lower cervical spine facet joints. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 37:375–84
     [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.  Park MS, Moon SH, Kim TH, Lee SY, Jo YG, Riew KD 2015. Relationship between modic changes and facet joint degeneration in the cervical spine. Eur. Spine J. 24:2999–3004
     [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.  Lee MJ, Riew KD 2009. The prevalence cervical facet arthrosis: an osseous study in a cadveric population. Spine J 9:711–14
     [Google Scholar]
  79. 79.  Kalichman L, Li L, Kim DH, Guermazi A, Berkin V et al. 2008. Facet joint osteoarthritis and low back pain in the community-based population. Spine 33:2560–65
     [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.  Suri P, Hunter DJ, Rainville J, Guermazi A, Katz JN 2013. Presence and extent of severe facet joint osteoarthritis are associated with back pain in older adults. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 21:1199–206
     [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.  Ko S, Vaccaro AR, Lee S, Lee J, Chang H 2014. The prevalence of lumbar spine facet joint osteoarthritis and its association with low back pain in selected Korean populations. Clin. Orthop. Surg. 6:385–91
     [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.  Kirkaldy-Willis W, Farfan H 1982. Instability of the lumbar spine. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 165:110–23
     [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.  Eubanks JD, Lee MJ, Cassinelli E, Ahn NU 2007. Does lumbar facet arthrosis precede disc degeneration? A postmortem study. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 464:184–89
     [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.  Bough B, Thakore J, Davies M, Dowling F 1990. Degeneration of the lumbar facet joints. Arthrography and pathology. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 72:275–76
     [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.  Li J, Muehleman C, Abe Y, Masuda K 2011. Prevalence of facet joint degeneration in association with intervertebral joint degeneration in a sample of organ donors. J. Orthop. Res. 29:1267–74
     [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.  Virk SS, Niedermeier S, Yu E, Khan SN 2014. Adjacent segment disease. Orthopedics 37:547–55
     [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.  Hilibrand AS, Carlson GD, Palumbo MA, Jones PK, Bohlman HH 1999. Radiculopathy and myelopathy at segments adjacent to the site of a previous anterior cervical arthrodesis. J. Bone Joint Surg. 81:519–28
     [Google Scholar]
  88. 88.  Hellum C, Berg L, Gjertsen O, Johnsen LG, Neckelmann G et al. 2012. Adjacent level degeneration and facet arthropathy after disc prosthesis surgery or rehabilitation in patients with chronic low back pain and degenerative disc: second report of a randomized study. Spine 37:2063–73
     [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.  Nunley PD, Jawahar A, Kerr EJ III, Gordon CJ, Cavanaugh DA et al. 2012. Factors affecting the incidence of symptomatic adjacent-level disease in cervical spine after total disc arthroplasty: 2- to 4-year follow-up of 3 prospective randomized trials. Spine 37:445–51
     [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.  Ciol MA, Deyo RA, Howell E, Kreif S 1996. An assessment of surgery for spinal stenosis: time trends, geographic variations, complications, and reoperations. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 44:285–90
     [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.  Jansson KA, Blomqvist P, Granath F, Nemeth G 2003. Spinal stenosis surgery in Sweden 1987–1999. Eur. Spine J. 12:535–41
     [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.  Du Bois M, Szpalski M, Donceel P 2012. A decade's experience in lumbar spine surgery in Belgium: sickness fund beneficiaries, 2000–2009. Eur. Spine J. 21:2693–703
     [Google Scholar]
  93. 93.  Lee CK, Rauschning W, Glenn W 1988. Lateral lumbar spinal canal stenosis: classification, pathologic anatomy and surgical decompression. Spine 13:313–20
     [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.  Lee SY, Kim T-H, Oh JK, Lee SJ, Park MS 2015. Lumbar stenosis: a recent update by review of literature. Asian Spine J 9:818–28
     [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.  Kalichman L, Kim DH, Li L, Guermazi A, Berkin V, Hunter DJ 2009. Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis: prevalence and association with low back pain in the adult community-based population. Spine 34:199–205
     [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.  Aebi M 2005. The adult scoliosis. Eur. Spine J. 14:925–48
     [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.  van Dam BE 1988. Nonoperative treatment of adult scoliosis. Orthop. Clin. N. Am. 19:347–51
     [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.  Pichaisak W, Chotiyarnwong C, Chotiyarnwong P 2015. Facet joint orientation and tropism in lumbar degenerative disc disease and spondylolisthesis. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 98:373–79
     [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.  Xu C, Lin B, Ding Z, Xu Y 2015. Cervical degenerative spondylolisthesis: analysis of facet orientation and the severity of cervical spondylolisthesis. Spine J 16:10–15
     [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.  Nakayama T, Ehara S 2015. Spondylolytic spondylolisthesis: various imaging features and natural courses. Jpn. J. Radiol. 33:3–12
     [Google Scholar]
  101. 101.  Bao H, Zhu F, Liu Z, Bentley M, Mao S et al. 2014. Vertebral rotatory subluxation in degenerative scoliosis: facet joint tropism is related. Spine 39:B45–51
     [Google Scholar]
  102. 102.  Manchikanti L, Singh V, Falco FJ, Cash KA, Pampati V 2010. Evaluation of lumbar facet joint nerve blocks in managing chronic low back pain: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial with a 2-year follow-up. Int. J. Med. Sci. 7:124–35
     [Google Scholar]
  103. 103.  Fotiadou A, Wojcik A, Shaju A 2012. Management of low back pain with facet joint injections and nerve root blocks under computed tomography guidance. A prospective study. Skelet. Radiol. 41:1081–85
     [Google Scholar]
  104. 104.  Cohen SP, Williams KA, Kurihara C, Nguyen C, Shields C et al. 2010. Multicenter, randomized, comparative cost-effectiveness study comparing 0, 1, and 2 diagnostic medial branch (facet joint nerve) block treatment paradigms before lumbar facet radiofrequency denervation. Anesthesiology 113:395–405
     [Google Scholar]
  105. 105.  Schwarzer AC, Aprill CN, Derby R, Fortin J, Kine G, Bogduk N 1994. The false-positive rate of uncontrolled diagnostic blocks of the lumbar zygapophysial joints. Pain 58:195–200
     [Google Scholar]
  106. 106.  Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Bakhit CE, Rivera JJ, Beyer CD et al. 2001. Effectiveness of lumbar facet joint nerve blocks in chronic low back pain: a randomized clinical trial. Pain Phys 4:101–17
     [Google Scholar]
  107. 107.  Staal JB, de Bie RA, de Vet HC, Hildebrandt J, Nelemans P 2009. Injection therapy for subacute and chronic low back pain: an updated Cochrane review. Spine 34:49–59
     [Google Scholar]
  108. 108.  Carette S, Marcoux S, Truchon R, Grondin C, Gagnon J et al. 1991. A controlled trial of corticosteroid injections into facet joints for chronic low back pain. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:1002–7
     [Google Scholar]
  109. 109.  Chou R, Loeser JD, Owens DK, Rosenquist RW, Atlas SJ et al. 2009. Interventional therapies, surgery, and interdisciplinary rehabilitation for low back pain: an evidence-based clinical practice guideline from the American Pain Society. Spine 34:1066–77
     [Google Scholar]
  110. 110.  Dagenais S, Yelland MJ, Del Mar C, Schoene ML 2007. Prolotherapy injections for chronic low-back pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 18:CD004059
     [Google Scholar]
  111. 111.  Vekaria R, Bhatt R, Ellard DR, Henschke N, Underwood M, Sandhu H 2016. Intra-articular facet joint injections for low back pain: a systematic review. Eur. Spine J. 25:1266–81
     [Google Scholar]
  112. 112.  Wu T, Zhao WH, Dong Y, Song HX, Li JH 2016. Effectiveness of ultrasound-guided versus fluoroscopy or computed tomography scanning guidance in lumbar facet joint injections in adults with facet joint syndrome: a meta-analysis of controlled trials. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 97:1558–63
     [Google Scholar]
  113. 113.  Maas ET, Ostelo RW, Niemisto L, Jousimaa J, Hurri H et al. 2015. Radiofrequency denervation for chronic low back pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 10:CD008572
     [Google Scholar]
  114. 114.  Nath S, Nath CA, Pettersson K 2008. Percutaneous lumbar zygapophysial (facet) joint neurotomy using radiofrequency current, in the management of chronic low back pain: a randomized double-blind trial. Spine 33:1291–97
     [Google Scholar]
  115. 115.  Tekin I, Mirzai H, Ok G, Erbuyun K, Vatansever D 2007. A comparison of conventional and pulsed radiofrequency denervation in the treatment of chronic facet joint pain. Clin. J. Pain 23:524–29
     [Google Scholar]
  116. 116.  Stovner LJ, Kolstad F, Helde G 2004. Radiofrequency denervation of facet joints C2–C6 in cervicogenic headache: a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled study. Cephalalgia 24:821–30
     [Google Scholar]
  117. 117.  Leclaire R, Fortin L, Lambert R, Bergeron YM, Rossignol M 2001. Radiofrequency facet joint denervation in the treatment of low back pain: a placebo-controlled clinical trial to assess efficacy. Spine 26:1411–16
     [Google Scholar]
  118. 118.  van Wijk RM, Geurts JW, Wynne HJ, Hammink E, Buskens E et al. 2005. Radiofrequency denervation of lumbar facet joints in the treatment of chronic low back pain: a randomized, double-blind, sham lesion–controlled trial. Clin. J. Pain 21:335–44
     [Google Scholar]
  119. 119.  Poetscher AW, Gentil AF, Lenza M, Ferretti M 2014. Radiofrequency denervation for facet joint low back pain: a systematic review. Spine 39:E842–49
     [Google Scholar]
  120. 120.  Garrido E, Connaughton PN 1991. Unilateral facetectomy approach for lateral lumbar disc herniation. J. Neurosurg. 74:754–56
     [Google Scholar]
  121. 121.  Sanderson PL, Getty CJ 1996. Long-term results of partial undercutting facetectomy for lumbar lateral recess stenosis. Spine 21:1352–56
     [Google Scholar]
  122. 122.  Zander T, Rohlmann A, Klöckner C, Bergmann G 2003. Influence of graded facetectomy and laminectomy on spinal biomechanics. Eur. Spine J. 12:427–34
     [Google Scholar]
  123. 123.  Cusick JF, Yoganandan N, Pintar F, Myklebust J, Hussain H 1988. Biomechanics of cervical spine facetectomy and fixation techniques. Spine 13:808–12
     [Google Scholar]
  124. 124.  Jacobs RR, Montesano PX, Jackson RP 1989. Enhancement of lumbar spine fusion by use of translaminar facet joint screws. Spine 14:12–15
     [Google Scholar]
  125. 125.  Park YK, Chung HS 1999. Instrumented facet fusion for the degenerative lumbar disorders. Acta Neurochir 141:915–20
     [Google Scholar]
  126. 126.  Heggeness MH, Esses SI 1991. Translaminar facet joint screw fixation for lumbar and lumbosacral fusion. A clinical and biomechanical study. Spine 16:S266–69
     [Google Scholar]
  127. 127.  Grob D, Bartanusz V, Jeszenszky D, Kleinstück FS, Lattig F et al. 2009. A prospective, cohort study comparing translaminar screw fixation with transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion and pedicle screw fixation for fusion of the degenerative lumbar spine. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 91:1347–53
     [Google Scholar]
  128. 128.  Akbay A, Inceoğlu S, Milks R, Schlenk R, Palaoglu S, Benzel EC 2005. Thoracic transfacet pedicle screw fixation: a new instrumentation technique. J. Neurosurg. Spine 3:224–29
     [Google Scholar]
  129. 129.  Chin KR, Reis MT, Reyes PM, Newcomb AG, Neagoe A et al. 2015. Stability of transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion in the setting of retained facets and posterior fixation using transfacet or standard pedicle screws. Spine J 15:1077–82
     [Google Scholar]
  130. 130.  Luo P, Chen YH, Wu YS, Dou HC, Chi YL, Lin Y 2015. Comparison of transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion performed with unilateral pedicle screw fixation or unilateral pedicle screw—contralateral percutaneous transfacet screw fixation. Br. J. Neurosurg. 30:86–90
     [Google Scholar]
  131. 131.  Chin KR, Seale J, Cumming V 2015. Mini-open or percutaneous bilateral lumbar transfacet pedicle screw fixation: a technical note. J. Spinal Disord. Tech. 28:61–65
     [Google Scholar]
  132. 132.  Fisher MA, O'Neil MJ, Serhan HA 2008. Intra-facet fixation device and method of use US Patent 8133261
  133. 133.  Hartensuer R, Riesenbeck O, Schulze M, Gehweiler D, Raschke MJ et al. 2014. Biomechanical evaluation of the Facet Wedge: a refined technique for facet fixation. Eur. Spine J. 23:2321–29
     [Google Scholar]
  134. 134.  Goel A, Shah A 2011. Facetal distraction as treatment for single- and multilevel cervical spondylotic radiculopathy and myelopathy: a preliminary report. J. Neurosurg. Spine 14:689–96
     [Google Scholar]
  135. 135.  Goel VK, Mehta A, Jangra J, Faizan A, Kiapour A et al. 2007. Anatomic Facet Replacement System (AFRS) restoration of lumbar segment mechanics to intact: a finite element study and in vitro cadaver investigation. SAS J 1:46–54
     [Google Scholar]
  136. 136.  Sjovold SG, Zhu Q, Bowden A, Larson CR, de Bakker PM et al. 2012. Biomechanical evaluation of the Total Facet Arthroplasty System® (TFAS®): loading as compared to a rigid posterior instrumentation system. Eur. Spine J. 21:1660–73
     [Google Scholar]
  137. 137.  Zhu Q, Larson CR, Sjovold SG, Rosler DM, Keynan O et al. 2007. Biomechanical evaluation of the Total Facet Arthroplasty System: 3-dimensional kinematics. Spine 32:55–62
     [Google Scholar]
  138. 138.  Phillips FM, Tzermiadianos MN, Voronov LI, Havey RM, Carandang G et al. 2009. Effect of the Total Facet Arthroplasty System after complete laminectomy–facetectomy on the biomechanics of implanted and adjacent segments. Spine J 9:96–102
     [Google Scholar]
  139. 139.  Wilke HJ, Schmidt H, Werner K, Schmolz W, Drumm J 2006. Biomechanical evaluation of a new total posterior-element replacement system. Spine 31:2790–96
     [Google Scholar]
  140. 140.  McAfee P, Khoo LT, Pimenta L, Capuccino A, Sengoz A et al. 2007. Treatment of lumbar spinal stenosis with a total posterior arthroplasty prosthesis: implant description, surgical technique, and a prospective report on 29 patients. Neurosurg. Focus 22:E13
     [Google Scholar]
  141. 141.  Anekstein Y, Floman Y, Smorgick Y, Rand N, Millgram M, Mirovsky Y 2015. Seven years follow-up for total lumbar facet joint replacement (TOPS) in the management of lumbar spinal stenosis and degenerative spondylolisthesis. Eur. Spine J. 24:2306–14
     [Google Scholar]
  142. 142.  de Kelft EV 2016. Lumbar facet resurfacing: first experience with the FENIX implant. Clin. Spine Surg. 29:E475–81
     [Google Scholar]
  143. 143.  Makris EA, Gomoll AH, Malizos KN, Hu JC, Athanasiou KA 2015. Repair and tissue engineering techniques for articular cartilage. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 11:21–34
     [Google Scholar]
  144. 144.  Huey DJ, Hu JC, Athanasiou KA 2012. Unlike bone, cartilage regeneration remains elusive. Science 338:917–21
     [Google Scholar]
  145. 145.  Elder BD, Kim DH, Athanasiou KA 2010. Developing an articular cartilage decellularization process toward facet joint cartilage replacement. Neurosurgery 66:722–27
     [Google Scholar]
  146. 146.  Kelly TA, Ng KW, Wang CC, Ateshian GA, Hung CT 2006. Spatial and temporal development of chondrocyte-seeded agarose constructs in free-swelling and dynamically loaded cultures. J. Biomech. 39:1489–97
     [Google Scholar]
  147. 147.  Makris EA, MacBarb RF, Paschos NK, Hu JC, Athanasiou KA 2014. Combined use of chondroitinase-ABC, TGF-β1, and collagen crosslinking agent lysyl oxidase to engineer functional neotissues for fibrocartilage repair. Biomaterials 35:6787–96
     [Google Scholar]
  148. 148.  Natoli RM, Skaalure S, Bijlani S, Chen KX, Hu J, Athanasiou KA 2010. Intracellular Na+ and Ca2+ modulation increases the tensile properties of developing engineered articular cartilage. Arthritis Rheum 62:1097–107
     [Google Scholar]
  149. 149.  Giannini S, Buda R, Vannini F, Cavallo M, Grigolo B 2009. One-step bone marrow–derived cell transplantation in talar osteochondral lesions. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 467:3307–20
     [Google Scholar]
  150. 150.  Kon E, Filardo G, Roffi A, Andriolo L, Marcacci M 2012. New trends for knee cartilage regeneration: from cell-free scaffolds to mesenchymal stem cells. Curr. Rev. Musculoskelet. Med. 5:236–43
     [Google Scholar]
  151. 151.  Athanasiou K, Korvick D, Schenck R Jr. 1997. Biodegradable implants for the treatment of osteochondral defects in a goat model. Tissue Eng 3:363–73
     [Google Scholar]
  152. 152.  Chu CR, Dounchis JS, Yoshioka M, Sah RL, Coutts RD, Amiel D 1997. Osteochondral repair using perichondrial cells. A 1-year study in rabbits. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 1997:220–29
     [Google Scholar]
  153. 153.  McCormick F, Cole BJ, Nwachukwu B, Harris JD, Adkisson Iv HD, Farr J 2013. Treatment of focal cartilage defects with a juvenile allogeneic 3-dimensional articular cartilage graft. Oper. Tech. Sports Med. 21:95–99
     [Google Scholar]
  154. 154.  Fickert S, Gerwien P, Helmert B, Schattenberg T, Weckbach S et al. 2012. One-year clinical and radiological results of a prospective, investigator-initiated trial examining a novel, purely autologous 3-dimensional autologous chondrocyte transplantation product in the knee. Cartilage 3:27–42
     [Google Scholar]
  155. 155.  Makris EA, Responte DJ, Paschos NK, Hu JC, Athanasiou KA 2014. Developing functional musculoskeletal tissues through hypoxia and lysyl oxidase–induced collagen cross-linking. PNAS 111:E4832–41
     [Google Scholar]
  156. 156.  Elder B 2009. Biomechanical, biochemical, and histological characterization of canine lumbar facet joint cartilage. J. Neurosurg. Spine 10:623–28
     [Google Scholar]
  157. 157.  Gunja NJ, Huey DJ, James RA, Athanasiou KA 2009. Effects of agarose mould compliance and surface roughness on self-assembled meniscus-shaped constructs. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 3:521–30
     [Google Scholar]
  158. 158.  Pal GP, Routal RV 2001. The orientation of the articular facets of the zygapophyseal joints at the cervical and upper thoracic region. J. Anat. 198:431–41
     [Google Scholar]
  159. 159.  Butscher A, Bohner M, Hofmann S, Gauckler L, Müller R 2011. Structural and material approaches to bone tissue engineering in powder-based three-dimensional printing. Acta Biomater 7:907–20
     [Google Scholar]
  160. 160.  Bose S, Vahabzadeh S, Bandyopadhyay A 2013. Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing. Mater. Today 16:496–504
     [Google Scholar]
  161. 161.  Panjabi MM, Oxland T, Takata K, Goel V, Duranceau J, Krag M 1993. Articular facets of the human spine quantitative three-dimensional anatomy. Spine 18:1298–310
     [Google Scholar]
  162. 162.  White AA III 1969. Analysis of the mechanics of the thoracic spine in man. An experimental study of autopsy specimens. Acta Orthop. Scand. Suppl. 127:1–105
     [Google Scholar]
  163. 163.  White AA, III Panjabi MM 1978. The basic kinematics of the human spine. A review of past and current knowledge. Spine 3:12–20
     [Google Scholar]
  164. 164.  Ivicsics MF, Bishop NE, Püschel K, Morlock MM, Huber G 2014. Increase in facet joint loading after nucleotomy in the human lumbar spine. J. Biomech. 47:1712–17
     [Google Scholar]
  165. 165.  Colle KO, Butler JB, Reyes PM, Newcomb AGUS, Theodore N, Crawford NR 2013. Biomechanical evaluation of a metal-on-metal cervical intervertebral disc prosthesis. Spine J 13:1640–49
     [Google Scholar]
  166. 166.  Rohlmann A, Zander T, Schmidt H, Wilke H-J, Bergmann G 2006. Analysis of the influence of disc degeneration on the mechanical behaviour of a lumbar motion segment using the finite element method. J. Biomech. 39:2484–90
     [Google Scholar]
  167. 167.  Rousseau M-A, Bradford DS, Bertagnoli R, Hu SS, Lotz JC 2006. Disc arthroplasty design influences intervertebral kinematics and facet forces. Spine J 6:258–66
     [Google Scholar]
  168. 168.  Ateshian GA, Soslowsky LJ, Mow VC 1991. Quantitation of articular surface topography and cartilage thickness in knee joints using stereophotogrammetry. J. Biomech. 24:761–76
     [Google Scholar]
  169. 169.  Shepherd DET, Seedhom BB 1999. Thickness of human articular cartilage in joints of the lower limb. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 58:27–34
     [Google Scholar]
  170. 170.  Athanasiou KA, Darling EM, DuRaine GD, Hu JC, Reddi AH 2013. Articular Cartilage Boca Raton, FL: CRC
  171. 171.  Gratz KR, Wong VW, Chen AC, Fortier LA, Nixon AJ, Sah RL 2006. Biomechanical assessment of tissue retrieved after in vivo cartilage defect repair: tensile modulus of repair tissue and integration with host cartilage. J. Biomech. 39:138–46
     [Google Scholar]
  172. 172.  Shelburne KB, Torry MR, Pandy MG 2005. Muscle, ligament, and joint-contact forces at the knee during walking. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37:1948–56
     [Google Scholar]
  173. 173. Natl. Cent. Health Stat. 2010. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2010 Summary Tables Washington, DC: Natl. Cent. Health Stat http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ahcd/web_tables.htm
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924
Loading
Facet Joints of the Spine: Structure–Function Relationships, Problems and Treatments, and the Potential for Regeneration
Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 20, 145 (2018); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-062117-120924
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error