1932

Abstract

Success in life is linked to executive functions, a collection of cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviors. Executive functions is an umbrella term related to cognitive control, self-control, and more. Variations in executive functioning predict concurrent success in schooling, relationships, and behavior, as well as important life outcomes years later. Such findings may suggest that certain individuals are destined for good executive functioning and success. However, environmental influences on executive function and development have long been recognized. Recent research in this tradition demonstrates the power of social contextual influences on children's engagement of executive functions. Such findings suggest new interpretations of why individuals differ in executive functioning and associated life outcomes, including across cultures and socioeconomic statuses. These findings raise fundamental questions about how best to conceptualize, measure, and support executive functioning across diverse contexts. Future research addressing real-world dynamics and computational mechanisms will elucidate how executive functioning emerges in the world.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085005
2021-12-09
2024-04-16
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/devpsych/3/1/annurev-devpsych-121318-085005.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085005&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abney DH, Suanda SH, Smith LB, Yu C. 2020. What are the building blocks of parent–infant coordinated attention in free-flowing interaction?. Infancy 25:6871–87
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Acker MM, O'Leary SG. 1996. Inconsistency of mothers’ feedback and toddlers’ misbehavior and negative affect. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 24:6703–14
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Ackerman BP, Brown ED. 2010. Physical and psychosocial turmoil in the home and cognitive development. Chaos and Its Influence on Children's Development: An Ecological Perspective GW Evans, TD Wachs 35–47 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Adam KCS, Vogel EK. 2016. Reducing failures of working memory with performance feedback. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 23:51520–27
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Ahmed S, Grammer J, Morrison F. 2021. Cognition in context: validating group-based executive function assessments in young children. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 208:105131
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Ahmed S, Tang S, Waters NE, Davis-Kean P. 2019. Executive function and academic achievement: longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. J. Educ. Psychol. 111:3446–58
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Alexander WH, Brown JW 2010. Computational models of performance monitoring and cognitive control. Top. Cogn. Sci. 2:4658–77
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Andrews K, Atkinson L, Harris M, Gonzalez A 2021. Examining the effects of household chaos on child executive functions: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 147:116–32
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Ayduk O, Mendoza-Denton R, Mischel W, Downey G, Peake PK, Rodriguez M. 2000. Regulating the interpersonal self: strategic self-regulation for coping with rejection sensitivity. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 79:5776–92
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Badre D. 2008. Cognitive control, hierarchy, and the rostro-caudal organization of the frontal lobes. Trends Cogn. Sci. 12:5193–200
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Baillargeon R, Spelke ES, Wasserman S. 1985. Object permanence in five-month-old infants. Cognition 20:3191–208
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Banich M. 2009. Executive function: the search for an integrated account. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 18:289–94
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Baptista J, Osório A, Martins EC, Verissimo M, Martins C. 2016. Does social-behavioral adjustment mediate the relation between executive function and academic readiness?. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 46:22–30
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Barker JE, Semenov AD, Michaelson L, Provan LS, Snyder HR, Munakata Y. 2014. Less-structured time in children's daily lives predicts self-directed executive functioning. Front. Psychol. 5:593
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Barkley RA. 2012. Executive Functions: What They Are, How They Work, and Why They Evolved New York: Guilford
  16. Basner M, Babisch W, Davis A, Brink M, Clark C et al. 2014. Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health. Lancet 383:99251325–32
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Benson JE, Sabbagh MA, Carlson SM, Zelazo PD. 2013. Individual differences in executive functioning predict preschoolers’ improvement from theory-of-mind training. Dev. Psychol. 49:91615–27
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Berry D, Blair C, Willoughby M, Garrett-Peters P, Vernon-Feagans L, Mills-Koonce WR. 2016. Household chaos and children's cognitive and socio-emotional development in early childhood: Does childcare play a buffering role?. Early Child. Res. Q. 34:115–27
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Best JR, Miller PH. 2010. A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Dev 81:61641–60
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Blair C, Razza RP. 2007. Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Dev 78:2647–63
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Blair C, Ursache A, Greenberg M, Vernon-Feagans LFam. Life Proj. Investig 2015. Multiple aspects of self-regulation uniquely predict mathematics but not letter-word knowledge in the early elementary grades. Dev. Psychol. 51:4459–72
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bodrova E, Germeroth C, Leong DJ. 2013. Play and self-regulation: lessons from Vygotsky. Am. J. Play 6:1111–23
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Bodrova E, Leong DJ. 2018. Tools of the mind: a Vygotskian early childhood curriculum. International Handbook of Early Childhood Education, ed. M Fleer, B van Oers 1095–111 Dordrecht, Neth: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Bogartz RS, Shinskey JL, Schilling T. 2000. Object permanence in five-and-a-half month old infants?. Infancy 1:403–28
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Botvinick M, Braver T. 2015. Motivation and cognitive control: from behavior to neural mechanism. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 66:83–113
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Bowers E, Li Y, Kiely M, Brittian A, Lerner J, Lerner R. 2010. The Five Cs model of positive youth development: a longitudinal analysis of confirmatory factor structure and measurement invariance. J. Youth Adolesc. 39:720–35
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Brod G, Bunge SA, Shing YL. 2017. Does one year of schooling improve children's cognitive control and alter associated brain activation?. Psychol. Sci. 28:7967–78
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Bronfenbrenner U, Evans GW. 2000. Developmental science in the 21st century: emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and empirical findings. Soc. Dev. 9:1115–25
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Bronfenbrenner U, Morris PA 1998. The ecology of developmental processes. Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1: Theoretical Models of Human Development W Damon, RM Lerner 993–1028 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 5th ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Brydges CR, Reid CL, Fox AM, Anderson M 2012. A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children. Intelligence 40:5458–69
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Bunge SA, Crone EA 2009. Neural correlates of the development of cognitive control. Neuroimaging in Developmental Clinical Neuroscience JM Rumsey, M Ernst 22–37 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Burrage MS, Ponitz CC, McCready EA, Shah P, Sims BC et al. 2008. Age- and schooling-related effects on executive functions in young children: a natural experiment. Child Neuropsychol 14:6510–24
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Buss AT, Spencer JP. 2014. The emergent executive: a Dynamic Field theory of the development of executive function. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 79:21–11
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Buyalskaya A, Gallo M, Camerer CF. 2021. The golden age of social science. PNAS 118:5e2002923118
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Camilli G, Shepard LA. 1994. Methods for Identifying Biased Test Items 4 Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
  36. Carlson SM. 2005. Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Dev. Neuropsychol. 28:2595–616
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Cepeda NJ, Blackwell KA, Munakata Y. 2013. Speed isn't everything: Complex processing speed measures mask individual differences and developmental changes in executive control. Dev. Sci. 16:2269–86
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Chatham CH, Herd SA, Brant AM, Hazy TE, Miyake A et al. 2011. From an executive network to executive control: a computational model of the n-back task. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23:3598–619
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Chevalier N. 2018. Willing to think hard? The subjective value of cognitive effort in children. Child Dev 89:41283–95
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Chiew KS, Braver TS. 2013. Temporal dynamics of motivation–cognitive control interactions revealed by high-resolution pupillometry. Front. Psychol. 4:15
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Chiew KS, Braver TS. 2014. Dissociable influences of reward motivation and positive emotion on cognitive control. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 14:2509–29
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Chiew KS, Braver TS. 2016. Reward favours the prepared: Incentive and task-informative cues interact to enhance attentional control. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 42:152–66
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Cole M. 1995. Culture and cognitive development: from cross-cultural research to creating systems of cultural mediation. Cult. Psychol. 1:125–54
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Collins AGE, Frank MJ. 2013. Cognitive control over learning: creating, clustering, and generalizing task-set structure. Psychol. Rev. 120:1190–229
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Conway ARA, Kane MJ, Engle RW 2003. Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends Cogn. Sci. 7:12547–52
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Correa-Chávez M, Mejía-Arauz R, Rogoff B. 2015. Children Learn by Observing and Contributing to Family and Community Endeavors: A Cultural Paradigm Adv. Child Dev. Behav . Vol. 49 Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1st ed..
  47. Cragg L, Gilmore C. 2014. Skills underlying mathematics: the role of executive function in the development of mathematics proficiency. Trends Neurosci. Educ. 3:263–68
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Davis EP, Stout SA, Molet J, Vegetabile B, Glynn LM et al. 2017. Exposure to unpredictable maternal sensory signals influences cognitive development across species. PNAS 114:3910390–95
    [Google Scholar]
  49. DeJoseph ML, Sifre RD, Raver CC, Blair CB, Berry D. 2021. Capturing environmental dimensions of adversity and resources in the context of poverty across infancy through early adolescence: a moderated nonlinear factor model. Child Dev 92:4457–75
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Diamond A. 2013. Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64:135–68
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Diamond A, Lee K 2011. Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4–12 years old. Science 333:6045959–64
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Doan SN, Evans GW. 2020. Chaos and instability from birth to age three. Future Child 30:293–113
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Doebel S. 2020. Rethinking executive function and its development. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15:4942–56
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Doebel S, Michaelson LE, Munakata Y 2020. Good things come to those who wait: Delaying gratification likely does matter for later achievement (a commentary on Watts, Duncan, & Quan, 2018). Psychol. Sci. 31:197–99
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Doebel S, Munakata Y. 2018. Group influences on engaging self-control: Children delay gratification and value it more when their in-group delays and their out-group doesn't. Psychol. Sci. 29:5738–48
    [Google Scholar]
  56. D'Onofrio BM, Turkheimer EN, Eaves LJ, Corey LA, Berg K et al. 2003. The role of the children of twins design in elucidating causal relations between parent characteristics and child outcomes. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 44:81130–44
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Draheim C, Tsukahara JS, Martin JD, Mashburn CA, Engle RW. 2021. A toolbox approach to improving the measurement of attention control. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 150:2242–75
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Dubois L, Kyvik KO, Girard M, Tatone-Tokuda F, Pérusse D et al. 2012. Genetic and environmental contributions to weight, height, and BMI from birth to 19 years of age: an international study of over 12,000 twin pairs. PLOS ONE 7:2e30153
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Duckworth AL, Kern ML. 2011. A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. J. Res. Personal. 45:3259–68
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Duckworth AL, Tsukayama E, Kirby TA 2013. Is it really self-control? Examining the predictive power of the delay of gratification task. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 39:7843–55
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Duckworth AL, Yeager DS. 2015. Measurement matters: assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educ. Res. 44:4237–51
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Eigsti I-M, Zayas V, Walter M, Shoda Y, Ayduk O et al. 2006. Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychol. Sci. 17:6478–84
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Eisenberg IW, Bissett PG, Enkavi AZ, Li J, MacKinnon DP et al. 2019. Uncovering the structure of self-regulation through data-driven ontology discovery. Nat. Commun. 10:2319
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Elman JL, Bates EA, Johnson MH, Karmiloff-Smith A, Parisi D, Plunkett K. 1996. Rethinking Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development Cambridge, MA: Bradford
  65. Enkavi AZ, Eisenberg IW, Bissett PG, Mazza GL, MacKinnon DP et al. 2019. Large-scale analysis of test–retest reliabilities of self-regulation measures. PNAS 116:125472–77
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Evans GW. 2021. The physical context of child development. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 30:141–48
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Evans GW, Bullinger M, Hygge S. 1998. Chronic noise exposure and physiological response: a prospective study of children living under environmental stress. Psychol. Sci. 9:175–77
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Falk A, Kosse F, Pinger P. 2020. Re-revisiting the marshmallow test: a direct comparison of studies by Shoda, Mischel, and Peake 1990 and Watts, Duncan, and Quan; 2018. Psychol. Sci. 31:1100–4
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Feldman R. 2012. Parent–infant synchrony: a biobehavioral model of mutual influences in the formation of affiliative bonds. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 77:242–51
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Fiese BH. 2006. Family Routines and Rituals New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  71. Figner B, Knoch D, Johnson EJ, Krosch AR, Lisanby SH et al. 2010. Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice. Nat. Neurosci. 13:5538–39
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Fischer P, Camba L, Ooi SH, Chevalier N. 2018. Supporting cognitive control through competition and cooperation in childhood. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 173:28–40
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Fisher AV, Godwin KE, Seltman H 2014. Visual environment, attention allocation, and learning in young children: when too much of a good thing may be bad. Psychol. Sci. 25:71362–70
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Fox NA, Buzzell GA, Morales S, Valadez EA, Wilson M, Henderson HA 2021. Understanding the emergence of social anxiety in children with behavioral inhibition. Biol. Psychiatry 89:7681–89
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Friedman NP, Haberstick BC, Willcutt EG, Miyake A, Young SE et al. 2007. Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychol. Sci. 18:10893–900
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Friedman NP, Miyake A, Altamirano LJ, Corley RP, Young SE et al. 2016. Stability and change in executive function abilities from late adolescence to early adulthood: a longitudinal twin study. Dev. Psychol. 52:2326–40
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Friedman NP, Miyake A, Corley RP, Young SE, Defries JC, Hewitt JK. 2006. Not all executive functions are related to intelligence. Psychol. Sci. 17:2172–79
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Friedman NP, Miyake A, Robinson JL, Hewitt JK 2011. Developmental trajectories in toddlers’ self-restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: a behavioral genetic analysis. Dev. Psychol. 47:51410–30
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Friedman NP, Miyake A, Young SE, Defries JC, Corley RP, Hewitt JK. 2008. Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 137:2201–25
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Fuhs MW, Day JD. 2011. Verbal ability and executive functioning development in preschoolers at head start. Dev. Psychol. 47:2404–16
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Fujita K, Trope Y, Liberman N, Levin-Sagi M. 2006. Construal levels and self-control. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90:3351–67
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Gathercole SE, Pickering SJ, Ambridge B, Wearing H 2004. The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Dev. Psychol. 40:2177–90
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Glynn LM, Baram TZ. 2019. The influence of unpredictable, fragmented parental signals on the developing brain.. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 53:100736
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Goldstein MH, King AP, West MJ. 2003. Social interaction shapes babbling: testing parallels between birdsong and speech. PNAS 100:8030–35
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Goldstein MH, Schwade JA. 2008. Social feedback to infants’ babbling facilitates rapid phonological learning. Psychol. Sci. 19:5515–23
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Goldstein MH, West MJ. 1999. Consistent responses of human mothers to prelinguistic infants: the effect of prelinguistic repertoire size. J. Comp. Psychol. 113:152–58
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Good C, Aronson J, Inzlicht M. 2003. Improving adolescents’ standardized test performance: an intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 24:6645–62
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Goodenough FL. 1936. The measurement of mental functions in primitive groups. Am. Anthropol. 38:11–11
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Haenlein M, Caul WF. 1987. Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity: a specific hypothesis of reward dysfunction. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 26:3356–62
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Hammer MC@MCHammer 2021. You bore us. If science is a “commitment to truth” shall we site all the historical non-truths perpetuated by scientists ? Of course not. It's not science vs Philosophy … It's Science + Philosophy. Elevate your Thinking and Consciousness. When you measure include the measurer Twitter, Febr 21 9:50 am. https://twitter.com/mchammer/status/1363908982289559553
  91. Harbaugh W, Krause K, Liday S, Vesterlund L 2003. Trust and Reciprocity: Interdisciplinary Lessons for Experimental Research New York: Russell Sage Found.
  92. Harms MB, Zayas V, Meltzoff AN, Carlson SM. 2014. Stability of executive function and predictions to adaptive behavior from middle childhood to pre-adolescence. Front. Psychol. 5:331
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Hefer C, Dreisbach G. 2016. The motivational modulation of proactive control in a modified version of the AX-continuous performance task: evidence from cue-based and prime-based preparation. Motiv. Sci. 2:2116–34
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Helm AF, McCormick SA, Deater-Deckard K, Smith CL, Calkins SD, Bell MA. 2020. Parenting and children's executive function stability across the transition to school. Infant Child Dev 29:1e2171
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Henrich J, Heine SJ, Norenzayan A. 2010. The weirdest people in the world?. Behav. Brain Sci. 33:2/361–83
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Hirsh-Pasek K, Adamson LB, Bakeman R, Owen MT, Golinkoff RM et al. 2015. The contribution of early communication quality to low-income children's language success. Psychol. Sci. 26:71071–83
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Hoffmann W, Friese M, Roefs A 2009. Three ways to resist temptation: the independent contributions of executive attention, inhibitory control, and affect regulation to the impulse control of eating behavior. J. Exp. Psychol. 45:2431–35
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Dunning DL. 2009. Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Dev. Sci. 12:4F9–15
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Huizinga M, Baeyens D, Burack JA. 2018. Executive function and education. Front. Psychol. 9:1357
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Huys QJM, Maia TV, Frank MJ 2016. Computational psychiatry as a bridge from neuroscience to clinical applications. Nat. Neurosci. 19:3404
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Jachimowicz JM, Chafik S, Munrat S, Prabhu JC, Weber EU. 2017. Community trust reduces myopic decisions of low-income individuals. PNAS 114:215401–6
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Jaffee SR, Strait LB, Odgers CL. 2012. From correlates to causes: Can quasi-experimental studies and statistical innovations bring us closer to identifying the causes of antisocial behavior?. Psychol. Bull. 138:2272–95
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Johansen EB, Killeen PR, Russell VA, Tripp G, Wickens JR et al. 2009. Origins of altered reinforcement effects in ADHD. Behav. Brain Funct. 5:7
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Kail R. 2000. Speed of information processing: developmental change and links to intelligence. J. Sch. Psychol. 38:151–61
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Kassai R, Futo J, Demetrovics Z, Takacs ZK 2019. A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence on the near- and far-transfer effects among children's executive function skills. Psychol. Bull. 145:2165–88
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Katz B, Matthews JS, Shah P, Munakata Y. 2021. Executive functions and education: progress and potential Work. Pap., Dep. Hum. Dev. Fam. Sci., Va. Tech. Blacksburg:
  107. Kave G, Kigel S, Kochva R 2008. Switching and clustering in verbal fluency tasks throughout childhood. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 30:3349–59
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Keen R. 2003. Representation of objects and events: Why do infants look so smart and toddlers look so dumb?. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 12:379–83
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Kidd C, Palmeri H, Aslin RN. 2013. Rational snacking: Young children's decision-making on the marshmallow task is moderated by beliefs about environmental reliability. Cognition 126:1109–14
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Könen T, Dirk J, Schmiedek F 2015. Cognitive benefits of last night's sleep: Daily variations in children's sleep behavior are related to working memory fluctuations. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 56:2171–82
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Kool W, McGuire JT, Rosen ZB, Botvinick M. 2010. Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 139:4665–82
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Koomen R, Grueneisen S, Herrmann E 2020. Children delay gratification for cooperative ends. Psychol. Sci. 31:2139–48
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Lamm B, Keller H, Teiser J, Gudi H, Yovsi RD et al. 2018. Waiting for the second treat: developing culture-specific modes of self-regulation. Child Dev 89:3e261–77
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Lan X, Legare CH, Ponitz CC, Li S, Morrison FJ 2011. Investigating the links between the subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: a cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 108:3677–92
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Lawson GM, Hook CJ, Farah MJ. 2018. A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children. Dev. Sci. 21:2e12529
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Ledgerwood A, Hudson STJ, Lewis N, Maddox K, Pickett C et al. 2021. The pandemic as a portal: reimagining psychological science as truly open and inclusive. PsyArXiv gdzue. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/gdzue
    [Crossref]
  117. Lee WSC, Carlson SM. 2015. Knowing when to be “rational”: flexible economic decision making and executive function in preschool children. Child Dev 86:51434–48
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Legare CH, Dale MT, Kim SY, Deák GO 2018. Cultural variation in cognitive flexibility reveals diversity in the development of executive functions. Sci. Rep. 8:16326
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Lillard AS, Else-Quest N. 2006. The early years: evaluating Montessori education. Science 313:57951893–94
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Lillard AS, Heise MJ, Richey EM, Tong X, Hart A, Bray PM 2017. Montessori preschool elevates and equalizes child outcomes: a longitudinal study. Front. Psychol. 8:1783
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Luerssen A, Gyurak A, Ayduk O, Wendelken C, Bunge SA. 2015. Delay of gratification in childhood linked to cortical interactions with the nucleus accumbens. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 10:121769–76
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Luna B, Padmanabhan A, O'Hearn K. 2010. What has fMRI told us about the development of cognitive control through adolescence?. Brain Cogn 72:1101–13
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Luria AR. 1966. Higher Cortical Functions in Man London: Tavistock
  124. Ma F, Chen B, Xu F, Lee K, Heyman GD 2018. Generalized trust predicts young children's willingness to delay gratification. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 169:118–25
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Mak C, Whittingham K, Cunnington R, Boyd RN 2018. Efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions for attention and executive function in children and adolescents—a systematic review. Mindfulness 9:159–78
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Marcovitch S, Boseovski JJ, Knapp RJ. 2007. Use it or lose it: examining preschoolers’ difficulty in maintaining and executing a goal. Dev. Sci. 10:559–64
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Mareschal D. 2000. Object knowledge in infancy: current controversies and approaches. Trends Cogn. Sci. 4:11408–16
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Mareschal D, Thomas M. 2007. Computational modeling in developmental psychology. IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 11:2137–50
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Matthews JS. 2018. When am I ever going to use this in the real world? Cognitive flexibility and urban adolescents’ negotiation of the value of mathematics. J. Educ. Psychol. 110:5726–46
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Mauro CF, Harris YR. 2000. The influence of maternal child-rearing attitudes and teaching behaviors on preschoolers’ delay of gratification. J. Genet. Psychol. 161:3292–306
    [Google Scholar]
  131. May CP, Hasher L, Stoltzfus ER. 1993. Optimal time of day and the magnitude of age differences in memory. Psychol. Sci. 4:5326–30
    [Google Scholar]
  132. McAdams TA, Hannigan LJ, Eilertsen EM, Gjerde LC, Ystrom E, Rijsdijk FV 2018. Revisiting the Children-of-Twins design: improving existing models for the exploration of intergenerational associations. Behav. Genet. 48:5397–412
    [Google Scholar]
  133. McClure SM, Laibson DI, Loewenstein G, Cohen JD 2004. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 306:5695503–7
    [Google Scholar]
  134. McEwen BS. 1998. Stress, adaptation, and disease. Allostasis and allostatic load. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 840:33–44
    [Google Scholar]
  135. McGuire JT, Botvinick MM. 2010. Prefrontal cortex, cognitive control, and the registration of decision costs. PNAS 107:177922–26
    [Google Scholar]
  136. McGuire JT, Kable JW. 2013. Rational temporal predictions can underlie apparent failures to delay gratification. Psychol. Rev. 120:2395–410
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Meehl PE. 1970. Nuisance variables and the ex post facto design. Minn. Stud. Philos. Sci. 4:373–402
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Michaelson LE, Munakata Y. 2016. Trust matters: Seeing how an adult treats another person influences preschoolers’ willingness to delay gratification. Dev. Sci. 19:61011–19
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Michaelson LE, Munakata Y. 2020. Same data set, different conclusions: Preschool delay of gratification predicts later behavioral outcomes in a preregistered study. Psychol. Sci. 31:2193–201
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Miller EK, Cohen JD. 2001. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 24:167–202
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Mischel W, Ebbesen EB, Raskoff Zeiss A 1972. Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 21:2204–18
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Mischel W, Shoda Y, Peake PK. 1988. The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of gratification. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 54:4687–96
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Mischel W, Shoda Y, Rodriguez ML. 1989. Delay of gratification in children. Science 244:4907933–38
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Miyake A, Friedman NP. 2012. The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21:18–14
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Moffett L, Flannagan C, Shah P. 2020. The influence of environmental reliability in the marshmallow task: an extension study. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 194:104821
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, Dickson N, Hancox RJ et al. 2011. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. PNAS 108:72693–98
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Montroy JJ, Merz EC, Williams JM, Landry SH, Johnson UY et al. 2019. Hot and cool dimensionality of executive function: model invariance across age and maternal education in preschool children. Early Child. Res. Q. 49:188–201
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Moreno AJ, Shwayder I, Friedman ID. 2017. The function of executive function: everyday manifestations of regulated thinking in preschool settings. Early Child. Educ. J. 45:2143–53
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Moriguchi Y, Chevalier N, Zelazo PD 2016. Development of executive function during childhood. Front. Psychol. 7:6
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Munakata Y, Chatham C, Snyder H 2013. Mechanistic accounts of frontal lobe development. Principles of Frontal Lobe Function RT Knight, DT Stuss 185–206 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Munakata Y, McClelland JL. 2003. Connectionist models of development. Dev. Sci. 6:4413–29
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Munakata Y, McClelland JL, Johnson MH, Siegler RS 1997. Rethinking infant knowledge: toward an adaptive process account of successes and failures in object permanence tasks. Psychol. Rev. 104:4686–713
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Munakata Y, Snyder HR, Chatham CH. 2012. Developing cognitive control: three key transitions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21:271–77
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Munakata Y, Yanaoka K, Doebel S, Guild RM, Michaelson LE, Saito S. 2020. Group influences on children's delay of gratification: testing the roles of culture and personal connections. Collabra Psychol 6:11
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Nesbitt KT, Farran DC. 2021. Effects of prekindergarten curricula: Tools of the Mind as a case study. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 86:17–119
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Neubauer AB, Dirk J, Schmiedek F 2019. Momentary working memory performance is coupled with different dimensions of affect for different children: a mixture model analysis of ambulatory assessment data. Dev. Psychol. 55:4754–66
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Newcombe NS. 2003. Some controls control too much. Child Dev 74:41050–52
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Niebaum J, Chevalier N, Guild R, Munakata Y 2021. Developing adaptive control: age-related differences in task choices and awareness of proactive and reactive control demands. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 21:3561–72
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Niebaum J, Munakata Y. 2020. Deciding what to do: developments in children's spontaneous monitoring of cognitive demands. Child Dev. Perspect. 14:4202–7
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Niebaum JC, Chevalier N, Guild RM, Munakata Y 2019. Adaptive control and the avoidance of cognitive control demands across development. Neuropsychologia 123:152–58
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Nielsen M, Haun D, Kärtner J, Legare CH. 2017. The persistent sampling bias in developmental psychology: a call to action. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 162:31–38
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Nigg JT. 2017. On the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 58:4361–83
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Noble KG, Norman MF, Farah MJ 2005. Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Dev. Sci. 8:174–87
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Nsamenang AB. 1995. Theories of developmental psychology for a cultural perspective: a view from Africa. Psychol. Dev. Soc. 7:11–19
    [Google Scholar]
  165. O'Reilly RC, Frank MJ 2006. Making working memory work: a computational model of learning in the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Neural Comput 18:2283–328
    [Google Scholar]
  166. O'Toole S, Monks CP, Tsermentseli S. 2018. Associations between and development of cool and hot executive functions across early childhood. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 36:1142–48
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Padilla-Walker LM, Dyer WJ, Yorgason JB, Fraser AM, Coyne SM. 2015. Adolescents’ prosocial behavior toward family, friends, and strangers: a person-centered approach. J. Res. Adolesc. 25:1135–50
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Parenteau AM, Hostinar CE, Vacaru SV, Lustermans H, Dimanova P et al. 2021. Does biobehavioral synchrony promote learning? A systematic review and meta-analysis Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development, online, Apr. 8
  169. Pennebaker JW, Gosling SD, Ferrell JD. 2013. Daily online testing in large classes: boosting college performance while reducing achievement gaps. PLOS ONE 8:11e79774
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Penuel WR, Gallagher DJ. 2017. Creating Research–Practice Partnerships in Education Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educ.
  171. Pepper GV, Nettle D. 2017. The behavioural constellation of deprivation: causes and consequences. Behav. Brain Sci. 40:e314
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Perone S, Simmering VR, Buss AT. 2021. A dynamical reconceptualization of executive-function development. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. In press. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620966792
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  173. Posner MI, Snyder CRR 1975. Attention and cognitive control. Information Processing and Cognition RL Solso 55–85 Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
  174. Razza RA, Raymond K. 2013. Associations among maternal behavior, delay of gratification, and school readiness across the early childhood years. Soc. Dev. 22:1180–96
    [Google Scholar]
  175. Rea-Sandin G, Korous KM, Causadias JM. 2021. A systematic review and meta-analysis of racial/ethnic differences and similarities in executive function performance in the United States. Neuropsychology 35:2141–56
    [Google Scholar]
  176. Reilly J@JamieReilly_cog 2021. I triple dog dare someone to explain the difference between executive functioning and cognitive control Twitter, Jan. 22, 5:17 am. https://twitter.com/JamieReilly_cog/status/1352606309951172609
  177. Repetti RL, Taylor SE, Seeman TE 2002. Risky families: family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychol. Bull. 128:2330–66
    [Google Scholar]
  178. Rioux C, Little TD. 2020. Underused methods in developmental science to inform policy and practice. Child Dev. Perspect. 14:297–103
    [Google Scholar]
  179. Robson DA, Allen MS, Howard SJ 2020. Self-regulation in childhood as a predictor of future outcomes: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 146:4324–54
    [Google Scholar]
  180. Rodriguez ML, Mischel W, Shoda Y. 1989. Cognitive person variables in the delay of gratification of older children at risk. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 57:2358–67
    [Google Scholar]
  181. Rogoff B. 1990. Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  182. Rogoff B, Turkanis CG, Bartlett L. 2002. Learning Together: Children and Adults in a School Community Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  183. Rohrer JM. 2018. Thinking clearly about correlations and causation: graphical causal models for observational data. Adv. Methods Pract. Psychol. Sci. 1:127–42
    [Google Scholar]
  184. Roos L, Beauchamp K, Flannery J, Fisher P. 2017. Cultural contributions to childhood executive function. J. Cogn. Cult. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  185. Rotter JB. 1971. Generalized expectancies for interpersonal trust. Am. Psychol. 26:5443–52
    [Google Scholar]
  186. Rougier NP, Noelle D, Braver TS, Cohen JD, O'Reilly RC 2005. Prefrontal cortex and the flexibility of cognitive control: rules without symbols. PNAS 102:207338–43
    [Google Scholar]
  187. Rueda MR 2012. Effortful control. Handbook of Temperament, ed. M Zenter, RL Shiner 145–67 New York: Guilford
    [Google Scholar]
  188. Salthouse TA. 1996. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol. Rev. 103:403–28
    [Google Scholar]
  189. Sawin DB, Parke RD. 1979. Inconsistent discipline of aggression in young boys. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 28:3525–38
    [Google Scholar]
  190. Scarr-Salapatek S. 1971. Race, social class, and IQ. Science 174:40161285–95
    [Google Scholar]
  191. Schlam TR, Wilson NL, Shoda Y, Mischel W, Ayduk O 2012. Preschoolers’ delay of gratification predicts their body mass 30 years later. J. Pediatr. 162:190–93
    [Google Scholar]
  192. Schmitt SA, Finders JK, McClelland MM. 2015. Residential mobility, inhibitory control, and academic achievement in preschool. Early Educ. Dev. 26:2189–208
    [Google Scholar]
  193. Schmitt SA, Geldhof GJ, Purpura DJ, Duncan R, McClelland MM 2017. Examining the relations between executive function, math, and literacy during the transition to kindergarten: a multi-analytic approach. J. Educ. Psychol. 109:81120–40
    [Google Scholar]
  194. Schneider S, Peters J, Peth JM, Büchel C. 2014. Parental inconsistency, impulsive choice and neural value representations in healthy adolescents. Transl. Psychiatry 4:4e382
    [Google Scholar]
  195. Schöner G, Spencer JPDFT Res. Group 2016. Dynamic Thinking: A Primer on Dynamic Field Theory Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  196. Schulenberg JE, Sameroff AJ, Cicchetti D. 2004. The transition to adulthood as a critical juncture in the course of psychopathology and mental health. Dev. Psychopathol. 16:4799–806
    [Google Scholar]
  197. Shenhav A, Botvinick MM, Cohen JD. 2013. The expected value of control: an integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron 79:2217–40
    [Google Scholar]
  198. Shenhav A, Musslick S, Lieder F, Kool W, Griffiths T et al. 2017. Toward a rational and mechanistic account of mental effort. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 40:99–124
    [Google Scholar]
  199. Shinskey JL, Munakata Y. 2005. Familiarity breeds searching: Infants reverse their novelty preferences when reaching for hidden objects. Psychol. Sci. 16:8596–600
    [Google Scholar]
  200. Shoda Y, Mischel W, Peake PK. 1990. Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: identifying diagnostic conditions. Dev. Psychol. 26:6978–86
    [Google Scholar]
  201. Shultz TR 2013. Computational models in developmental psychology. The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 1: Body and Mind PD Zelazo New York: Oxford Univ. Press https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199958450.013.0017
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  202. Smith LB, Thelen E. 1996. A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action Cambridge, MA: Bradford
  203. Smith LB, Thelen E, Titzer B, McLin D. 1999. Knowing in the context of acting: the task dynamics of the A-not-B error. Psychol. Rev. 106:2235–60
    [Google Scholar]
  204. Snyder HR. 2013. Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: a meta-analysis and review. Psychol. Bull. 139:181–132
    [Google Scholar]
  205. Somerville LH, Casey B. 2010. Developmental neurobiology of cognitive control and motivational systems. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 20:2236–41
    [Google Scholar]
  206. Spector PE, Brannick MT. 2011. Methodological urban legends: the misuse of statistical control variables. Organ. Res. Methods 14:2287–305
    [Google Scholar]
  207. Spelke E, Breinlinger K, Macomber J, Jacobson K. 1992. Origins of knowledge. Psychol. Rev. 99:4605–32
    [Google Scholar]
  208. Spencer SJ, Zanna MP, Fong GT. 2005. Establishing a causal chain: why experiments are often more effective than mediational analyses in examining psychological processes. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 89:6845–51
    [Google Scholar]
  209. Sturge-Apple ML, Davies PT, Cicchetti D, Hentges RF, Coe JL. 2017. Family instability and children's effortful control in the context of poverty: Sometimes a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Dev. Psychopathol. 29:3685–96
    [Google Scholar]
  210. Suarez-Rivera C, Smith LB, Yu C 2019. Multimodal parent behaviors within joint attention support sustained attention in infants. Dev. Psychol. 55:196–109
    [Google Scholar]
  211. Takacs ZK, Kassai R. 2019. The efficacy of different interventions to foster children's executive function skills: a series of meta-analyses. Psychol. Bull. 145:7653–97
    [Google Scholar]
  212. Tucker-Drob EM, Bates TC. 2016. Large cross-national differences in gene × socioeconomic status interaction on intelligence. Psychol. Sci. 27:2138–49
    [Google Scholar]
  213. Tucker-Drob EM, Briley DA, Harden KP. 2013. Genetic and environmental influences on cognition across development and context. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 22:5349–55
    [Google Scholar]
  214. Turkheimer E. 2000. Three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 9:5160–64
    [Google Scholar]
  215. Ullman TD, Tenenbaum JB. 2020. Bayesian models of conceptual development: learning as building models of the world. Annu. Rev. Dev. Psychol. 2:533–58
    [Google Scholar]
  216. Valcan DS, Davis H, Pino-Pasternak D. 2018. Parental behaviours predicting early childhood executive functions: a meta-analysis. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 30:3607–49
    [Google Scholar]
  217. Verburgh L, Königs M, Scherder EJA, Oosterlaan J. 2014. Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 48:12973–79
    [Google Scholar]
  218. Vohs KD, Baumeister RF. 2004. Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications New York: Guilford
  219. Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Newcorn JH, Kollins SH, Wigal TL et al. 2011. Motivation deficit in ADHD is associated with dysfunction of the dopamine reward pathway. Mol. Psychiatry 16:111147–54
    [Google Scholar]
  220. Vygotsky LS. 1978. Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  221. Watts TW, Duncan GJ. 2020. Controlling, confounding, and construct clarity: responding to criticisms of “Revisiting the marshmallow test” by Doebel, Michaelson, and Munakata 2020 and Falk, Kosse, and Pinger 2020.. Psychol. Sci. 31:1105–8
    [Google Scholar]
  222. Watts TW, Duncan GJ, Quan H. 2018. Revisiting the marshmallow test: a conceptual replication investigating links between early delay of gratification and later outcomes. Psychol. Sci. 29:71159–77
    [Google Scholar]
  223. Werchan DM, Amso D. 2017. A novel ecological account of prefrontal cortex functional development. Psychol. Rev. 124:6720–39
    [Google Scholar]
  224. Westbrook A, Kester D, Braver TS. 2013. What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLOS ONE 8:7e68210
    [Google Scholar]
  225. Westfall J, Yarkoni T. 2016. Statistically controlling for confounding constructs is harder than you think. PLOS ONE 11:3e0152719
    [Google Scholar]
  226. Wiebe SA, Karbach J 2017. Executive Function: Development Across the Life Span New York: Routledge
  227. Wiebe SA, Sheffield T, Nelson JM, Clark CAC, Chevalier N, Espy KA 2011. The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 108:3436–52
    [Google Scholar]
  228. Willoughby MT, Wirth RJ, Blair CB. 2012. Executive function in early childhood: longitudinal measurement invariance and developmental change. Psychol. Assess. 24:2418–31
    [Google Scholar]
  229. Wysocki A, Lawson KM, Rhemtulla M. 2020. Statistical control requires causal justification. PsyArXiv j9vw4. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/j9vw4
    [Crossref]
  230. Yanaoka K, Michaelson L, Guild RM, Dostart G, Yonehiro J et al. 2021. Cultures crossing: the power of habit in delaying gratification Work. Pap., Grad. Sch. Educ., Kyoto Univ. Jpn:.
  231. Young SE, Friedman NP, Miyake A, Willcutt EG, Corley RP et al. 2009. Behavioral disinhibition: liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118:1117–30
    [Google Scholar]
  232. Yu D, Yang P-J, Geldhof GJ, Tyler CP, Gansert PK et al. 2020. Exploring idiographic approaches to children's executive function performance: an intensive longitudinal study. J. Personal. Oriented Res. 6:273–87
    [Google Scholar]
  233. Yu D, Yang P-J, Michaelson LE, Geldhof GJ, Chase PA et al. 2021. Understanding child executive functioning through use of the Bornstein specificity principle. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 73:101240
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085005
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085005
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error