1932

Abstract

In 1968, almost 50 years ago, the Supreme Court validated, in a case called (1968), a common police practice known as stop and frisk, so long as an officer could justify the action on the basis of a newly developed standard: reasonable suspicion. Today, policing agencies use stop and frisk prophylactically, stopping in some cities tens or even hundreds of thousands of people annually. These developments and the litigation around the strategy in New York City and elsewhere provide an opportunity to revisit and to consider recent research in law and social science regarding stop and frisk. This review focuses on three issues: the evolution of legal doctrine pertaining to stop and frisk, arguments regarding the effectiveness of stop and frisk as a mechanism to control and reduce crime, and a delineation of the relevance of the theory of procedural justice to our understanding of the interleaving of the law and social science of stop and frisk.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134043
2014-11-03
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/lawsocsci/10/1/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134043.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134043&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Barrett JQ. 1998. Deciding the stop and frisk cases: a look inside the Supreme Court's conference. St. John's Law Rev. 72:749–890 [Google Scholar]
  2. Bayley DH. 1994. Police for the Future (Studies in Crime and Public Policy) New York: Oxford Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  3. Blader SL, Tyler TR. 2003. A four-component model of procedural justice: defining the meaning of a “fair” process. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 29:747–58 [Google Scholar]
  4. Braga AA, Papachristos AV, Hureau DM. 2010. The concentration and stability of gun violence at micro places in Boston, 1980–2008. J. Quant. Criminol. 26:33–53 [Google Scholar]
  5. Brunson RK, Miller J. 2006. Young black men and urban policing in the United States. Br. J. Criminol. 46:613–40 [Google Scholar]
  6. California v. Greenwood 486 U.S. 35 1988.
  7. Camara v. Municipal Court 387 U.S. 523 1967.
  8. Colb SF. 1996. Innocence, privacy, and targeting in the Fourth Amendment jurisprudence. Columbia Law Rev. 96:1456–525 [Google Scholar]
  9. Curtis R. 2012. Report from the field: zero tolerance/stop and frisk policing in New York City. Dialect. Anthropol. 36:343–52 [Google Scholar]
  10. Daniels v. City of New York No. 99 Civ. 1695 (S.D.N.Y 2003.
  11. Epp CR, Maynard-Moody S, Haider-Markel DP. 2014. Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  12. Fagan J. 2010. Report of Jeffrey Fagan, Ph.D. Expert Rep., Floyd v. New York, No. 08 Civ. 1034, U.S. Dist. Court S.D.N.Y. https://ccrjustice.org/files/Expert_Report_JeffreyFagan.pdf
  13. Fagan J, Geller A, Davies G, West V. 2009. Street stops and broken windows revisited: the demography and logic of proactive policing in a safe and changing city SSRN Work. Pap. 1399073, Soc. Sci. Res. Netw., Rochester, NY
  14. Ferguson AG. 2007. High-crime area question: requiring verifiable and quantifiable evidence for Fourth Amendment reasonable suspicion analysis. Am. Univ. Law Rev. 57:1587–644 [Google Scholar]
  15. Florida v. J.L. 529 U.S. 266 2000.
  16. Floyd v. City of New York No. 08 Civ. 1034 (S.D.N.Y. 2013)
  17. Gau JM, Brunson RK. 2010. Procedural justice and order maintenance policing: a study of inner-city young men's perceptions of police legitimacy. Justice Q. 27:255–79 [Google Scholar]
  18. Geller A, Fagan J. 2010. Pot as pretext: marijuana, race, and the new disorder in New York City street policing. J. Empir. Leg. Stud. 7:591–33 [Google Scholar]
  19. Gottfredson MR. 1990. A General Theory of Crime Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  20. Gunther G, Casper G, Kurland PB. 1975. Landmark Briefs and Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States Frederick, MD: Univ. Publ. Am.
  21. Harcourt BE, Ludwig J. 2007. Reefer madness: broken windows policing and misdemeanor marijuana arrests in New York City, 1989–2000. Criminol. Public Policy 6:165–81 [Google Scholar]
  22. Harris DA. 1993. Factors for reasonable suspicion: when black and poor means stopped and frisked. Indiana Law J. 69:659–88 [Google Scholar]
  23. Illinois v. Wardlow 528 U.S. 119 2000.
  24. Kahan DM, Meares TL. 1997. The coming crisis of criminal procedure. Georgetown Law J. 86:1153–84 [Google Scholar]
  25. Kelling GL, Wilson JQ. 1982. Broken windows. The Atlantic Mar:1 [Google Scholar]
  26. Kerner Comm 1968. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders Washington, DC: Gov. Print. Off.
  27. Kleck G. 1991. Point Blank: Guns and Violence in America Hawthorne, NY: de Gruyter
  28. Leong N. 2012. Making rights. Boston Univ. Law Rev. 92:405–81 [Google Scholar]
  29. Lind EA, Tyler TR. 1988. The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice Crit. Issues Soc. Justice New York: Plenum
  30. Loader I, Walker N. 2007. Civilizing Security Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  31. Mapp v. Ohio 367 U.S. 643 1961.
  32. Meares TL. 2012. The good cop: knowing the difference between lawful or effective policing and rightful policing—and why it matters. William Mary Law Rev. 54:1865–86 [Google Scholar]
  33. Meares TL, Harcourt BE. 1999. Transparent adjudication and social science research in constitutional criminal procedure. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 90:733–98 [Google Scholar]
  34. Meares TL, Kahan DM. 1998. Law and (norms of) order in the inner city. Law Soc. Rev. 32:805–38 [Google Scholar]
  35. Meares TL, Tyler TR. 2014. Justice Sotomayor and the jurisprudence of procedural justice. Yale Law J. Forum 123: doi:10.1007/s10610-013-9211-9. http://yalelawjournal.org/forum/justice-sotomayor-and-the-jurisprudence-of-procedural-justice [Google Scholar]
  36. Meares TL, Tyler TR, Gardener J. 2014. Lawful or fair? How cops and laypeople view good policing. J. Crim. Law Criminol. In press
  37. Pres. Comm. Law Enforc. Adm. Justice 1967. The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. Washington, DC: Gov. Print. Off.
  38. Rosenfeld R, Fornango R. 2014. The impact of police stops on precinct robbery and burglary rates in New York City, 2003–2010. Justice Q. 31:132–58 [Google Scholar]
  39. Saltzburg S. 2012. Terry v. Ohio: a practically perfect doctrine. St. John's Law Rev. 72:911–74 [Google Scholar]
  40. Sampson RJ, Cohen J. 1988. Deterrent effects of the police on crime: a replication and theoretical extension. Law Soc. Rev. 22:163–89 [Google Scholar]
  41. Schneckloth v. Bustamonte 412 U.S. 218 1973.
  42. Schneiderman ET. 2013. A Report on Arrests Arising from the New York City Police Department's Stop-and-Frisk Practices New York: Civ. Rights Bur. N.Y. State Atty. Gen. Off.
  43. Schwartz A. 1995. Just take away their guns: the hidden racism of Terry v. Ohio. Fordham Urban Law J. 23:317–75 [Google Scholar]
  44. Sherman LW. 1993. Defiance, deterrence, and irrelevance: a theory of the criminal sanction. J. Res. Crime Delinquency 30:445–73 [Google Scholar]
  45. Sherman LW, Rogan DP. 1995. Effects of gun seizures on gun violence: “hot spots” patrol in Kansas City. Justice Q. 12:673–93 [Google Scholar]
  46. Siegel RB. 2013. Equality divided. Harvard Law Rev. 127:1–94 [Google Scholar]
  47. Slobogin C. 2003. The poverty exception to the Fourth Amendment. Fla. Law Rev. 55:391–412 [Google Scholar]
  48. Smith DC, Bratton WJ. 2001. Performance management in New York City: COMPSTAT and the revolution in police management. Quicker Better Cheaper? Managing Performance in American Government DW Forsythe 453–82 Albany, NY: Rockefeller Inst. Press [Google Scholar]
  49. Solis C, Portillos EL, Brunson RK. 2009. Latino youths' experiences with and perceptions of involuntary police encounters. Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 623:39–51 [Google Scholar]
  50. Stern LG. 1967. Stop and frisk: an historical answer to a modern problem. J. Crim. Law Criminol. Police Sci. 58:532–42 [Google Scholar]
  51. Stuntz WJ. 1998a. Terry's impossibility. St. John's Law Rev. 72:1213–30 [Google Scholar]
  52. Stuntz WJ. 1998b. The distribution of Fourth Amendment privacy. George Washington Law Rev. 67:1265–89 [Google Scholar]
  53. Terry v. Ohio 392 U.S. 1 1968.
  54. Tyler TR. 2002. Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts Russell Sage Found. Ser. Trust New York: Russell Sage Found.
  55. Tyler TR. 2004. Enhancing police legitimacy. Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 593:84–99 [Google Scholar]
  56. Tyler TR. 2005. Policing in black and white: ethnic group differences in trust and confidence in the police. Police Q. 8:322–42 [Google Scholar]
  57. Tyler TR. 2007. Legitimacy and Criminal Justice: International Perspectives New York: Russell Sage Found.
  58. Tyler TR. 2011. Why People Cooperate: The Role of Social Motivations Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  59. Tyler TR, Fagan J. 2008. Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities?. Ohio State J. Crim. Law 6:231–76 [Google Scholar]
  60. Tyler TR, Fagan J, Geller A. 2014. Street stops and police legitimacy: teachable moments in young urban men's legal socialization SSRN Work. Pap. 2289244, Soc. Sci. Res. Netw., Rochester, NY
  61. Tyler TR, Lind EA. 1992. A relational model of authority in groups. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 25:115–92 [Google Scholar]
  62. Tyler TR, Wakslak CJ. 2004. Profiling and police legitimacy: procedural justice, attributions of motive, and acceptance of police authority. Criminology 42:253–82 [Google Scholar]
  63. United States v. Caruthers 458 F.3d 459 (6th Cir. 2006)
  64. United States v. Patton 705 F.3d 734 (7th Cir. 2013)
  65. United States v. Wright 485 F.3d 45 (1st Cir. 2007)
  66. Washington v. Davis 426 U.S. 229 1976.
  67. Weisburd D. 2012. The Criminology of Place: Street Segments and Our Understanding of the Crime Problem New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  68. Weisburd D, Telep CW, Lawton BA. 2014. Could innovations in policing have contributed to the New York City crime drop even in a period of declining police strength? The case of stop, question and frisk as a hot spots policing strategy. Justice Q. 31:129–53 [Google Scholar]
  69. White MD. 2014. The New York City police department, its crime control strategies and organizational changes, 1970–2009. Justice Q. 31:74–95 [Google Scholar]
  70. Wilson JQ. 1994. Just take away their guns. New York Times Mar:20 [Google Scholar]
  71. Wilson JQ, Boland B. 1978. The effect of the police on crime. Law Soc. Rev. 12:367–90 [Google Scholar]
  72. Wolf v. Colorado 338 U.S. 25 1949.
  73. Zimring FE. 2012. The City That Became Safe: New York's Lessons for Urban Crime and Its Control New York: Oxford Univ. Press
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134043
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134043
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error