1932

Abstract

How has populism transformed party systems in Europe? I survey the varieties of populism, the sources of their support and the different ways that they appeal to voters. I use data from the Chapel Hill Expert Survey to explore whether populist parties are intensifying competition on the cultural dimension, accelerating the decline of mainstream parties, and increasing polarization. I argue that while left and center populist parties have upended existing structures of competition, it is longstanding conservative parties, remodeled using ethnopopulism, that have been the most consequential for the substance of political competition and the trajectory of domestic politics. I consider the behavior of incumbents and argue that varieties of populism should shape our expectations of what happens when populists rule: While left populist parties in power over the last decade have tended to become more ordinary, sometimes even shedding antiestablishment and anti-EU positions, ethnopopulist parties in power have used harsh “us-versus-them” appeals, misinformation, and democratic backsliding in their pursuit of more power.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102711
2021-05-11
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/polisci/24/1/annurev-polisci-041719-102711.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102711&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Ádám Z. 2019. Explaining Orbán: a political transaction cost theory of authoritarian populism. Probl. Post-Communism 66:6385–410
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Ádám Z. 2020. Ultra-orthodoxy and selective voluntarism: How did the Orbán regime react to the first wave of the pandemic?. Eur. Policy Anal. 6:2277–92
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Appel H, Orenstein M. 2018. From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reforms in Postcommunist Countries New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  4. Art D. 2011. Inside the Radical Right. The Development of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  5. Art D. 2020. The myth of global populism. Perspect. Politics In press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720003552
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bakke E, Sitter N. 2020. The EU's enfants terribles: democratic backsliding in Central Europe since 2010. Perspect. Politics In press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720001292
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bakker R, Edwards E, Hooghe L, Jolly S, Marks G, Polk J, Rovny J, Steenbergen M, Vachudova MA. 2015. Measuring party positions in Europe: the Chapel Hill Expert Survey trend file, 1999–2010. Party Politics 21:1143–53
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bakker R, Hooghe L, Jolly S, Marks G, Polk J, Rovny J, Steenbergen M, Vachudova MA. 2020. 2019 Chapel Hill Expert Survey. Ver. 2019.1 Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill https://www.chesdata.eu
  9. Bakker R, Jolly S, Polk J. 2020. Multidimensional incongruence, political disaffection, and support for anti-establishment parties. J. Eur. Public Policy 27:2292–309
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bartha A, Boda Z, Szikra D. 2020. When populist leaders govern: conceptualising populism in policy making. Politics Gov 8:371–81
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Barton Hronešová J 2021. Ethnopopulist denial and crime relativisation in Bosnian Republika Srpska. East Eur. Politics. In press. https://doi.org/10.1080/21599165.2021.1871896
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. Berman S. 2019. Populism is a symptom rather than a cause: democratic disconnect, the decline of the center-left, and the rise of populism in Western Europe. Polity 51:4654–67
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bermeo N. 2016. On democratic backsliding. J. Democracy 27:15–19
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Blackington C, Vachudova MA. 2020. Oppositions assemble: ethnopopulists in power and the parties that oppose them Paper presented at the 116th APSA Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Sep. 9–13, online
  15. Bohle D, Greskovits B. 2019. Politicising embedded neoliberalism: continuity and change in Hungary's development model. West Eur. . Politics 42:51069–93
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bonikowski B. 2017. Ethno-nationalist populism and the mobilization of collective resentment. Br. J. Sociol. 68:S1S181–213
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Brubaker R. 2017. Between nationalism and civilizationism: the European populist moment in comparative perspective. Ethnic Racial Stud 40:81191–226
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bustikova L. 2019. Extreme Reactions: Radical Right Mobilization in Eastern Europe Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  19. Bustikova L, Baboš P. 2020. Best in Covid: populists in the time of pandemic. Politics Gov. 8:4496508
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Bustikova L, Guasti P. 2019. The state as a firm: understanding the autocratic roots of technocratic populism. East Eur. Politics Soc 33:2302–30
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Canovan M. 1999. Trust the people! Populism and the two faces of democracy. Political Stud. 47:12–16
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Casal Bértoa F, Rama J 2020. Party decline or social transformation? Economic, institutional and sociological change and the rise of anti-establishment parties in Western Europe. Eur. Political Sci. Rev. 12:4503–32
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Coppedge M, Gerring J, Knutsen CH, Lindberg SI, Teorell J et al. 2020. V-Dem Dataset v10. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem). https://www.v-dem.net/en/
  24. de Lange SL. 2007. A new winning formula? The programmatic appeal of the radical right. Party Politics 13:4411–35
    [Google Scholar]
  25. De Vries CE. 2018. Euroscepticism and the Future of European Integration Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  26. De Vries CE, Hobolt SB. 2012. When dimensions collide: the electoral success of issue entrepreneurs. Eur. Union Politics 13:2246–68
    [Google Scholar]
  27. De Vries CE, Hobolt SB. 2020. Political Entrepreneurs: The Rise of Challenger Parties in Europe Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  28. Deegan-Krause K, Haughton T. 2018. Surviving the storm: factors determining party survival in Central and Eastern Europe. East Eur. . Politics Soc 32:3473–92
    [Google Scholar]
  29. della Porta D, Fernandéz J, Kouki H, Mosca L. 2017. Movement Parties Against Austerity. Cambridge, UK: Polity
  30. Dimitrova A. 2018. The uncertain road to sustainable democracy: elite coalitions, citizen protests and the prospects of democracy in Central and Eastern Europe. East Eur. Politics 34:3257–75
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Džankić J, Keil S 2017. State-sponsored populism and the rise of populist governance: the case of Montenegro. J. Balkan Near Eastern Stud. 19:4403–18
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Ekiert G. 2020. Civil society as a threat to democracy Work. Pap., Cent. Eur. Stud., Harvard Univ. Cambridge, MA:
  33. Engler S. 2020. “Fighting corruption” or “fighting the corrupt elite”? Politicizing corruption within and beyond the populist divide. Democratization 27:4643–61
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Enyedi Z. 2016. Populist polarization and party system institutionalization: the role of party politics in de-democratization. Problems Post-Communism 63:4210–20
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Enyedi Z. 2020. Authoritarian innovations in Central and Eastern Europe. East Eur. Politics 36:3363–77
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Epstein R. 2020. The economic successes and sources of discontent in East Central Europe. Can. J. Eur. Russian Stud. 13:2119
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Fomina J, Kucharczyk J. 2016. Populism and protest in Europe. J. Democracy 27:458–68
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Font N, Graziano P, Tsakatika M. 2021. Varieties of inclusionary populism? SYRIZA, Podemos and the Five Star Movement. Gov. Oppos. 56:1163–83
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Ford R, Jennings W 2020. The changing cleavage politics of Western Europe. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 23:295–314
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Gidron N, Hall P. 2017. The politics of social status: economic and cultural roots of the populist right. Br. J. Sociol. 68:S1S5784
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Gingrich J, Häusermann S. 2015. The decline of the working class vote, the reconfiguration of the welfare support coalition and consequences for the welfare state. J. Social Policy 25:150–75
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Gougou F, Persico S. 2017. A new party system in the making? The 2017 French presidential election. French Politics 15:3303–21
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Greskovits B. 2015. The hollowing and backsliding of democracy in East Central Europe. Glob. Policy 6:128–37
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Greskovits B. 2020. Rebuilding the Hungarian right through conquering civil society: the Civic Circles Movement. East Eur. . Politics 3:2247–66
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Grzebalska W, Kováts E. 2018. Beyond the anti-woman backlash: how we can understand women's support for the right in Poland and Hungary. Int. Politics Soc. Dec. 18. https://www.ips-journal.eu/regions/europe/beyond-the-anti-women-backlash-3160/
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Grzymala-Busse A. 2019a. The failure of Europe's mainstream parties. J. Democr. 30:434–47
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Grzymala-Busse A. 2019b. How populists rule: the consequences for democratic governance. Polity 51:4707–17
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Haggard S, Kaufman R. 2021. Backsliding: Democratic Regress in the Contemporary World New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  49. Hall P, Soskice D 2001. Varieties of Capitalism: Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  50. Hanley S, Sikk A. 2014. Economy, corruption or floating voters? Explaining the breakthroughs of anti-establishment reform parties in eastern Europe. Party Politics 22:4522–33
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Hanley S, Vachudova MA. 2018. Understanding the illiberal turn: democratic backsliding in the Czech Republic. East Eur. Politics 34:3276–96
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Haughton T, Deegan-Krause K. 2020. The New Party Challenge: Changing Patterns of Party Birth and Death in Central Europe and Beyond Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  53. Havlík V. 2019. Technocratic populism and political illiberalism in the Czech Republic. Probl. Post-Communism 66:6369–84
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Hetherington MJ, Rudolph TJ 2018. Political trust and polarization. The Oxford Handbook of Social and Political Trust EM Uslaner 579–97 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hix S, Noury A, Roland G. 2019. Changing political cleavages in advanced democracies: evidence from the European Parliament. Work. Pap., London Sch. Econ. Political Sci., London, UK
  56. Hobolt S. 2016. The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent. J. Eur. Public Policy 23:91259–77
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Hobolt S, Tilley J. 2016. Fleeing the centre: the rise of challenger parties in the aftermath of the euro crisis. West Eur. . Politics 39:2971–91
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Hooghe L, Marks G. 2018. Cleavage theory meets Europe's crises: Lipset, Rokkan, and the transnational cleavage. J. Eur. Public Policy 25:1109–35
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Huber E, Stephens J. 2014. Income inequality and redistribution in post-industrial democracies: demographic, economic and political determinants. Socioecon. Rev. 12:2245–67
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Huber RA, Schimpf CH. 2017. On the distinct effects of left-wing and right-wing populism on democratic quality. Politics Gov 5:4146–65
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Hutter S, Kriesi H 2019. European Party Politics in Times of Crisis Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  62. Inglehart R. 1990. Cultural Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  63. Ivaldi G, Lanzone ME, Woods D. 2017. Varieties of populism across a left-right spectrum: the case of Front National, the Northern League, Podemos and Five Star Movement. Swiss Political Sci. Rev. 23:4354–76
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Iversen T, Soskice D. 2020. Democracy and Prosperity: Reinventing Capitalism Through a Turbulent Century Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  65. Jenne E. 2018. Is nationalism or ethno-populism on the rise today?. Ethnopolitics 17:5546–52
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Johnson J, Barnes A. 2015. Financial nationalism and its international enablers: the Hungarian experience. Rev. Int. Political Econ. 22:3535–69
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Juon A, Bochsler D. 2020. Hurricane or fresh breeze? Disentangling the populist effect on the quality of democracy. Eur. Political Sci. Rev. 12:3391–408
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Katsanidou A, Otjes S. 2015. How the European debt crisis reshaped national political space: the case of Greece. Eur. Union Politics 17:2262–84
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Katz RS, Mair P. 1995. Changing models of party organization and party democracy: the emergence of the cartel party. Party Politics 1:15–28
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Kelemen RD. 2020. The European Union's authoritarian equilibrium. J. Eur. Public Policy 27:3481–99
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Kitschelt H. 1994. The Transformation of European Social Democracy. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  72. Kitschelt H. 1995. The Radical Right in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis With AJ McGann Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
  73. Kitschelt H 2002. Popular dissatisfaction with democracy: populism and party systems. Democracies and the Populist Challenge Y Mény, Y Surel 179–96 Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Kriesi H, Grande E, Dolezal M, Helbling M, Höglinger D et al. 2012. Political Conflict in Western Europe Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  75. Kriesi H, Grande E, Lachat R, Dolezal M, Bornschier S, Frey T. 2008. West European Politics in the Age of Globalization Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  76. Kriesi H, Pappas T. 2015. European Populism in the Shadow of the Great Recession Colchester, UK: ECPR Press
  77. Kubik J, Bernhard M 2014. A theory of the politics of memory. Twenty Years After Communism: The Politics of Memory and Commemoration M Bernhard, J Kubik 7–36 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Kyriazi A. 2019. The 2019 general elections in Greece. LSE Eur. Politics Policy (EUROPP) Blog July 22. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/greeceatlse/2019/07/22/the-2019-july-general-elections-in-greece/
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Lancaster CM. 2020. Value shift: immigration attitudes and the sociocultural divide. Br. J. Political Sci. In press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123420000526
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  80. Levitsky S, Ziblatt D. 2018. How Democracies Die New York: Crown
  81. Lipset SM, Rokkan S 1967. Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives. New York: Free Press
  82. Lorenz A, Anders LH 2021. Illiberal Trends and Anti-EU Politics in East Central Europe London: Palgrave Macmillan
  83. Lynch J. 2019. Populism, partisan convergence, and mobilization in Western Europe. Polity 51:4668–77
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Magni G. 2020. Economic inequality, immigrants and selective solidarity: from perceived lack of solidarity to in-group favoritism. Br. J. Political Sci. In press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123420000046
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. Magyar B. 2016. Post-Communist Mafia State Budapest, Hungary: Central Eur. Univ. Press
  86. Mair P. 2013. Ruling the Void: The Hollowing of Western Democracy New York: Verso Books
  87. Margulies B. 2020. What the municipal elections in France told us about the future of the French party system. LSE Eur. Politics Policy (EUROPP) Blog July 3. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2020/07/03/what-the-french-municipal-elections-can-tell-us-about-the-future-of-the-french-party-system/
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Marks G, Attewell D, Rovny J, Hooghe L 2020. The changing political landscape in Europe. The EU Through Multiple Crises M Cotta, P Isernia 20–44 London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  89. McCoy J, Rahman T, Somer M. 2018. Polarization and the global crisis of democracy: common patterns, dynamics, and pernicious consequences for democratic polities. Am. Behav. Sci. 62:116–42
    [Google Scholar]
  90. McEwan I. 2020. Brexit, the most pointless, masochistic ambition in our country's history, is done. Guardian Feb. 1. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/feb/01/brexit-pointless-masochistic-ambition-history-done
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Meguid B. 2008. Competition Between Unequals: Strategies and Electoral Fortunes in Western Europe Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  92. Meijers MJ, Zaslove A. 2021. Measuring populist in political parties: appraisal of a new approach. Comp. Political Stud. 54:2372–407
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Meunier S, Vachudova MA. 2018. Liberal intergovernmentalism, illiberalism and the potential superpower of the European Union. J. Common Market Stud. 56:71631–47
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Moffitt B. 2016. The Global Rise of Populism: Performance, Political Style, and Representation Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  95. Moschella M, Rhodes M. 2020. A tale of two populisms: the League and the Five Star Movement in power. Contemp. Italian Politics 12:2112–25
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Mudde C. 2007. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  97. Mudde C. 2019. The Far Right Today Cambridge, UK: Polity
  98. Mudde C, Kaltwasser R. 2013. Exclusionary versus inclusionary populism: comparing contemporary Europe and Latin America. Gov. Oppos. 48:2147–74
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Müller J-W. 2017. What Is Populism? New York: Penguin
  100. Norris P, Inglehart R. 2019. Cultural Backlash: Trump, Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  101. Noury A, Roland G. 2020. Identity politics and populism in Europe. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 23:421–39
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Oesch D. 2008. Explaining workers’ support for right-wing populist parties in Western Europe: evidence from Austria, Belgium, France, Norway, and Switzerland. Int. Political Sci. Rev. 29:3349–73
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Orenstein M. 2019. The Lands in Between: Russia Versus the West and the New Politics of Hybrid War New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  104. Pappas T. 2019. Populism and Liberal Democracy. A Comparative and Theoretical Analysis Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  105. Pirro ALP. 2015. The Populist Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe: Ideology, Impact, and Electoral Performance London: Routledge
  106. Pirro ALP, van Kessel S. 2017. United in opposition? The populist radical right's EU-pessimism in times of crisis. J. Eur. Integration 39:4405–20
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Polk J, Bakker R, Hooghe L, Koedem J, Kostelka F et al. 2017. Explaining the salience of anti-elitism and reducing political corruption for political parties in Europe with the 2014 Chapel Hill Expert Survey data. Res. Politics 4:11–9
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Pop-Eleches G. 2010. Throwing out the bums: protest voting and unorthodox parties after communism. World Politics 62:2221–60
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Pop-Eleches G, Tucker J 2017. Communism's Shadow: Historical Legacies and Contemporary Political Attitudes Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  110. Roberts KM. 2019. Bipolar disorders: varieties of capitalism and populist out-flanking on the left and right. Polity 51:4641–53
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Rooduijn M. 2018. What unites the voter bases of populist parties? Comparing the electorates of 15 populist parties. Eur. Political Sci. Rev. 10:3351–68
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Rovny J. 2012. Who emphasizes and who blurs? Party strategies in multidimensional competition. Eur. Union Politics 13:2269–92
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Rovny J. 2015. Riker and Rokkan: remarks on the strategy and structure of party competition. Party Politics 21:6912–18
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Rovny J, Polk J. 2020. Still blurry? Economic salience, position and voting for radical right parties in Western Europe. Eur. J. Political Res. 59:2248–68
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Sadurski W. 2019. Poland's Constitutional Breakdown Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  116. Scheppele KL. 2013. The rule of law and the frankenstate: why governance checklists do not work. Governance 26:4559–62
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Snegovaya M. 2021. How ex-communist left parties reformed and lost. West Eur. Politics. In press. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1869447
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  118. Spoon J-J, Klüver H. 2019. Party convergence and vote switching: explaining mainstream party decline across Europe. Eur. J. Political Res. 58:41021–42
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Stanley B. 2008. The thin ideology of populism. J. Political Ideol. 13:195–110
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Stanley B. 2019. A new populist divide? Correspondences of supply and demand in the 2015 Polish parliamentary elections. East Eur. . Politics Soc 33:117–43
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Stavrakakis Y, Katsambekis G. 2014. Left-wing populism in the European periphery: the case of SYRIZA. J. Political Ideol. 19:2119–42
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Štětka V, Mazák J, Vochocová L. 2020. “Nobody tells us what to write about”: the disinformation media ecosystem and its consumers in the Czech Republic. Javnost Public In press. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2020.1841381
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  123. Stoyan A. 2020. Ambitious reform via constituent assemblies: determinants of success in contemporary Latin America. Stud. Comp. Int. Dev. 55:99–121
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Stroschein S 2019. Populism, nationalism and party politics. Nationalities Pap. 47:6923–35
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Surowiec P, Štětka V. 2019. Introduction: media and illiberal democracy in Central and Eastern Europe. East Eur. . Politics 36:11–8
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Svolik M. 2019. Polarization versus democracy. J. Democracy 30:320–32
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Szikra D. 2018. Welfare for the wealthy: the social policy of the Orbán regime, 2010–2017 Rep., Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Budapest, Hungary, Mar.
  128. Taggart P. 2000. Populism Buckingham, UK: Open Univ. Press
  129. Tworzecki H. 2019. Poland: a case of top-down polarization. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 681:197–119
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Urbinati N. 2019. Political theory of populism. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 22:111–27
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Vachudova MA. 2005. Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage and Integration after Communism Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  132. Vachudova MA. 2008. Tempered by the EU? Political parties and party systems before and after accession. J. Eur. Public Policy 15:6861–79
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Vachudova MA. 2019. From competition to polarization in Central Europe: how populists change party systems and the European Union. Polity 51:4689–706
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Vachudova M. 2020. Ethnopopulism and democratic backsliding in Central Europe. East Eur. Politics 36:3318–40
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Vachudova M, Hooghe L. 2009. Postcommunist politics in a magnetic field: how transition and EU accession structure party competition on European integration. Comp. Eur. Politics 7:2179–212
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Verbeek B, Zaslove A, Rooduijn M. 2018. Italian populism: toppling and re-building the party system twice. See Wolinetz & Zaslove 2018 197–218
  137. Whitefield S, Rohrschneider R. 2015. The salience of European integration to party competition: Western and Eastern Europe compared. East Eur. Politics Soc 29:112–39
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Waldner D, Lust E 2018. Unwelcome change: coming to terms with democratic backsliding. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 21:93–113
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Wodak R. 2019. Entering the ‘post-shame’ era’: the rise of illiberal democracy. Glob. Discourse 9:1195–213
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wolinetz S, Zaslove A 2018. Absorbing the Blow: Populist Parties and Their Impact on Parties and Party Systems London: Rowman & Littlefield
  141. Zankina E. 2016. Theorizing the new populism in Eastern Europe: a look at Bulgaria. Czech J. Political Sci 17:2182–99
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102711
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102711
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error