Prejudice and Discrimination Toward Immigrants

Literature Cited

1. Acolin A, Bostic R, Painter G 2016. A field study of rental market discrimination across origins in France. J. Urban Econ. 95:49–63
   [Google Scholar]
2. Adair JK. 2015. The impact of discrimination on the early schooling experiences of children from immigrant families Rep., Migr. Policy Inst Washington, DC: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/FCD-Adair.pdf
3. Agudelo-Suárez AA, Ronda-Pérez E, Gil-González D, Vives-Cases C, García AM et al. 2011. The effect of perceived discrimination on the health of immigrant workers in Spain. BMC Public Health 11:652
   [Google Scholar]
4. Ahmed AM, Andersson L, Hammarstedt M 2010. Can discrimination in the housing market be reduced by increasing the information about the applicants. Land Econ 86:179–90
   [Google Scholar]
5. Albarracin D, Shavitt S. 2018. Attitudes and attitude change. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 69:299–327
   [Google Scholar]
6. Andriessen I, Nievers E, Dagevos J, Faulk L 2012. Ethnic discrimination in the Dutch labor markets: its relationship with job characteristics and multiple group membership. Work Occup 39:237–69
   [Google Scholar]
7. Asbrock F, Lemmer G, Becker JC, Koller J, Wagner U 2014. “Who are these foreigners anyway?” The content of the term foreigner and its impact on prejudice. SAGE Open 4:2 https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014532819
   [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
8. Auspurg K, Hinz T, Schmid L 2017. Contexts and conditions of ethnic discrimination: evidence from a field experiment in a German housing market. J. Hous. Econ. 35:26–36
   [Google Scholar]
9. Aydemir A. 2014. Skill-based immigration, economic integration, and economic performance. IZA World Labor 41: https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.41
   [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
10. Ayón C. 2015. Economic, Social, and Health Effects of Discrimination on Latino Immigrant Families Washington, DC: Migr. Policy Inst.
11. Azevedo R, Beukelaer SD, Jones I, Safra L, Tsakiris M 2019. When the lens is too wide: the visual dehumanization of refugees and its political consequences Work. Pap., Warburg Inst., Univ. London London:
12. Baldini M, Federici M. 2011. Ethnic discrimination in the Italian rental housing market. J. Hous. Econ. 20:11–14
    [Google Scholar]
13. Banerjee R, Reitz JG, Oreopoulos P 2018. Do large employers treat racial minorities more fairly? An analysis of Canadian field experiment data. Can. Public Policy 44:11–12
    [Google Scholar]
14. Bansak K, Hainmueller J, Hangartner D 2016. How economic, humanitarian, and religious concerns shape European attitudes toward asylum seekers. Science 354:6309217–22
    [Google Scholar]
15. Bar-Tal D. 2000. Shared Beliefs in a Society Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
16. Barreto M. 2015. Experiencing and coping with social stigma. See Mikulincer et al. 2015 473–506
17. Batalova J, Fix M. 2020. As U.S. health-care system buckles under pandemic, immigrant and refugee professionals could represent a critical resource Rep., Migr. Policy Inst Washington, DC:
18. Batalova J, Fix M, Bachmeier JD 2016. Untapped talent: the costs of brain waste among highly skilled immigrants in the United States Rep., Migr. Policy Inst Washington, DC:
19. Berg AO, Melle I, Rossberg JI, Romm KL, Larsson S et al. 2011. Perceived discrimination is associated with severity of positive and depression/anxiety symptoms in immigrants with psychosis: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry 11:77
    [Google Scholar]
20. Berg JA. 2015. Explaining attitudes toward immigrants and immigration policy: a review of the theoretical literature. Sociol. Compass 9:23–34
    [Google Scholar]
21. Blinder S. 2015. Imagined immigration: the impact of different meanings of “immigrants” in public opinion and policy debates in Britain. Political Stud 63:180–100
    [Google Scholar]
22. Borgonovi F, Pokropek A. 2019. Education and attitudes toward migration in a cross country perspective. Front. Psychol. 10:2224
    [Google Scholar]
23. Bosch MA, Carnero MA, Farré LA 2010. Information and discrimination in the rental housing market: evidence from a field experiment. Reg. Sci. Urban Econ. 40:111–19
    [Google Scholar]
24. Bosch MA, Carnero MA, Farré L 2015. Rental housing discrimination and the persistence of ethnic enclaves. SERIEs 6:2129–52
    [Google Scholar]
25. Brader T, Valentino NA, Suhay E 2008. What triggers public opposition to immigration? Anxiety, group cues, and immigration threat. Am. J. Political Sci. 52:4959–78
    [Google Scholar]
26. Braun M, Behr D, Kaczmirek L 2013. Assessing cross-national equivalence of measures of xenophobia: evidence from probing in web surveys. Int. J. Public Opin. Res. 25:383–95
    [Google Scholar]
27. Brettell CB. 2011. Experiencing everyday discrimination: a comparison across five immigrant populations. Race Soc. Probl. 3:4266–79
    [Google Scholar]
28. Bruneau E, Jacoby N, Kteily N, Saxe R 2018a. Denying humanity: the distinct neural correlates of blatant dehumanization. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 147:71078–93
    [Google Scholar]
29. Bruneau E, Kteily N, Laustsen L 2018b. The unique effects of blatant dehumanization on attitudes and behavior towards Muslim refugees during the European “refugee crisis” across four countries. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 48:5645–62
    [Google Scholar]
30. Burhan OK, Leeuwen E. 2016. Altering perceived cultural and economic threats can increase immigrant helping. J. Soc. Issues 72:3548–65
    [Google Scholar]
31. Card D, Dustmann C, Preston I 2005. Understanding attitudes to immigration: the migration and minority module of the first European social survey CReAM Discuss. Pap. No. 03/05, Cent. Res. Anal. Migr., Univ. Coll. London London:
32. Carlsson M. 2010. Experimental evidence of discrimination in the hiring of first- and second-generation immigrants. Labour 24:3263–78
    [Google Scholar]
33. Ceobanu AM. 2011. Usual suspects? Public views about immigrants’ impact on crime in European countries. Int. J. Comp. Sociol. 52:1–2114–31
    [Google Scholar]
34. Ceobanu AM, Escandell X. 2010. Comparative analyses of public attitudes toward immigrants and immigration using multi-national survey data: a review of theories and research. . Annu. Rev. Sociol 36:309–28
    [Google Scholar]
35. Christ O, Asbrock F, Dhont K, Pettigrew TF, Wagner U 2013. The effects of intergroup climate on immigrants’ acculturation preferences. Z. Psychol. 221:252–57
    [Google Scholar]
36. Cochrane C, Nevitte N. 2014. Scapegoating: unemployment, far-right parties and anti-immigrant sentiment. Comp. Eur. Politics 12:11–32
    [Google Scholar]
37. Cohrs JC, Stelzl M. 2010. How ideological attitudes predict host society members' attitudes toward immigrants: exploring cross-national differences. J. Soc. Issues 66:673–94
    [Google Scholar]
38. Crandall CS, Eshleman A. 2003. A justification-suppression model of the expression of prejudice. Psychol. Bull. 129:414–46
    [Google Scholar]
39. Dancygier RM, Laitin DD. 2014. Immigration into Europe: economic discrimination, violence, and public policy. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 17:143–64
    [Google Scholar]
40. De Coninck D. 2020. Migrant categorizations and European public opinion: diverging attitudes toward immigrants and refugees. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 46:91667–86
    [Google Scholar]
41. Dempster H, Hargrave K. 2017. Understanding public attitudes towards refugees and migrants Work. Pap. 512, Overseas Dev. Inst London: https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11600.pdf
42. Donnelly MJ. 2017. Canadian exceptionalism: Are we good, or are we lucky? A survey of Canadian attitudes in comparative perspective Surv., McGill Inst. Study Can., Sch. Public Policy Gov., Univ. Toronto Toronto:
43. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL, Pearson AR 2017. Aversive racism and contemporary bias. The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice CG Sibley, FK Barlow 267–94 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
44. Dovidio JF, Hebl MR. 2005. Discrimination at the level of the individual: cognitive and affective factors. Discrimination at Work: The Psychological and Organizational Bases RL Dipboye, A Colella 11–35 Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
    [Google Scholar]
45. Duckitt J, Sibley CG. 2010. Right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation differentially moderate intergroup effects on prejudice. Eur. J. Personal. 24:583–601
    [Google Scholar]
46. Edge S, Newbold B. 2013. Discrimination and the health of immigrants and refugees: exploring Canada's evidence base and directions for future research in newcomer receiving countries. J. Immigr. Minor. Health 15:1141–48
    [Google Scholar]
47. Ellemers N, Barreto M. 2015. Modern discrimination: how perpetrators and targets interactively perpetuate social disadvantage. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 3:142–46
    [Google Scholar]
48. Ellermann A. 2020. Discrimination in migration and citizenship. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 46:122463–79
    [Google Scholar]
49. Escandell X, Ceobanu AM. 2009. When contact with immigrants matters: threat, interethnic attitudes and foreigner exclusionism in Spains’ Comunidades Autónomas. Ethn. Racial Stud. 32:144–69
    [Google Scholar]
50. Esipova N, Fleming J, Ray J 2017. New index shows least-, most-accepting countries for migrants. Gallup Aug. 23. https://news.gallup.com/poll/216377/new-index-shows-least-accepting-countries-migrants.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
51. Esipova N, Pugliese A, Ray J 2018. More than 750 million worldwide would migrate if they could. Gallup Dec. 10. https://news.gallup.com/poll/245255/750-million-worldwide-migrate.aspx
    [Google Scholar]
52. Esipova N, Ray J, Pugliese A, Tsabutashvili D 2015. How the world views migration Rep., Int. Organ. Migr., Geneva Switz: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/how_the_world_gallup.pdf
53. Esses VM. 2005. American versus Canadian immigration policy: implications for immigrants and members of the host population Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association Washington, DC: Aug. 18–21
54. Esses VM, Bennett-Abuayyash C, Lapshina N 2014. How discrimination against ethnic and religious minorities contributes to the underutilization of immigrants’ skills. Policy Insights Behav. Brain Sci. 1:155–62
    [Google Scholar]
55. Esses VM, Dovidio JF, Semenya AH, Jackson LM 2005. Attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: the role of national and international identities. The Social Psychology of Inclusion and Exclusion D Abrams, JM Marques, MA Hogg 317–37 Philadelphia, PA: Psychol. Press
    [Google Scholar]
56. Esses VM, Hamilton LK, Bennett-AbuAyyash C, Burstein M 2010a. Characteristics of a welcoming community Rep., Citizenship Immigr. Can Ottawa, Can: http://p2pcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Characteristics-of-a-Welcoming-Community-11.pdf
57. Esses VM, Hamilton LK, Gaucher D 2017. The global refugee crisis: empirical evidence and policy implications for improving public attitudes and facilitating refugee resettlement. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 11:178–123
    [Google Scholar]
58. Esses VM, Hamilton LK, Gaucher D 2019. The role of attitudes in migration. Handbook of Attitudes D Albarracin, B Johnson 455–87 Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
59. Esses VM, Jackson LM, Bennett-AbuAyyash C 2010b. Intergroup competition. The SAGE Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination JF Dovidio, M Hewstone, P Glick, VM Esses 225–40 London: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
60. Esses VM, Jackson LM, Armstrong TL 1998. Intergroup competition and attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: an instrumental model of group conflict. J. Soc. Issues 54:4699–724
    [Google Scholar]
61. Esses VM, Medianu S, Lawson AS 2013. Uncertainty, threat, and the role of the media in promoting the dehumanization of immigrants and refugees. J. Soc. Issues 69:3518–36
    [Google Scholar]
62. Esses VM, Medianu S, Sutter A 2020. The dehumanization and rehumanization of refugees. Routledge Handbook of Dehumanization M Kronfeldner London: Routledge In press
    [Google Scholar]
63. Esses VM, Veenvliet S, Hodson G, Mihic L 2008. Justice, morality, and the dehumanisation of refugees. Soc. Justice Res. 21:4–25
    [Google Scholar]
64. Esses VM, Veenvliet S, Medianu S 2011. The dehumanization of refugees: determinants and consequences. Social Categories in Everyday Experience S Wiley, G Philogène, TA Revenson 133–50 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
    [Google Scholar]
65. Fiske ST. 2012. Managing ambivalent prejudices. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 639:33–48
    [Google Scholar]
66. Fiske ST, Lee TL. 2012. Xenophobia and how to fight it: immigrants as the quintessential other. Social Categories in Everyday Experience S Wiley, G Philogène, TA Revenson 151–63 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
    [Google Scholar]
67. Foels R, Pratto F. 2015. The hidden dynamics of discrimination: how ideologies organize power and influence intergroup relations. See Mikulincer et al. 2015 341–69
68. Ford R. 2011. Acceptable and unacceptable immigrants: how opposition to immigration in Britain is affected by migrants’ region of origin. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 37:1017–37
    [Google Scholar]
69. Ford R, Mellon J. 2020. The skills premium and the ethnic premium: a cross-national experiment on European attitudes to immigrants. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 46:512–32
    [Google Scholar]
70. Fussell E. 2014. Warmth of the welcome: attitudes toward immigrants and immigration policy in the United States. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 40:479–98
    [Google Scholar]
71. Gadarian SK, Albertson B. 2014. Anxiety, immigration, and the search for information. Political Psychol 35:2133–64
    [Google Scholar]
72. Gaddis SM. 2018. An introduction to audit studies in the social sciences. Audit Studies: Behind the Scenes with Theory, Method, and Nuance S Gaddis 3–44 Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
73. Gallego A, Pardos-Prado S. 2014. The big five personality traits and attitudes towards immigrants. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 40:179–99
    [Google Scholar]
74. Gaucher D, Friesen JP, Neufeld K, Esses VM 2018. Changes in the positivity of migrant stereotypes: how system-sanctioned pro-migrant ideology can affect public opinions of migrants. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 9:223–33
    [Google Scholar]
75. Goldin I, Cameron G, Balarajan M 2011. Exceptional People: How Migration Shaped Our World and Will Define Our Future Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
76. Gonzalez-Barrera A, Connor P. 2019. Around the world, more say immigrants are a strength than a burden. Pew Research Center March 14. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/03/14/around-the-world-more-say-immigrants-are-a-strength-than-a-burden/
    [Google Scholar]
77. Goodman SW. 2011. Controlling immigration through language and country knowledge requirements. West Eur. Politics 34:2235–55
    [Google Scholar]
78. Gorodzeisky A, Semyonov M. 2020. Perceptions and misperceptions: actual size, perceived size and opposition to immigration in European societies. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 46:612–30
    [Google Scholar]
79. Greenaway KH, Louis WR, Hornsey MJ, Jones JM 2013. Perceived control qualifies the effects of threat on prejudice. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 53:422–42
    [Google Scholar]
80. Grewal S. 2007. Brain drain II: Immigrants let glass ceiling gather dust. The Star July 21
    [Google Scholar]
81. Grigorieff A, Roth C, Ubfal D 2016. Does information change attitudes towards immigrants? Evidence from survey experiments IZA Discuss. Pap. No. 10419, Inst. Study Labor Bonn, Ger:.
82. Gutekunst M. 2015. Language as a new instrument of border control: the regulation of marriage migration from Morocco to Germany. J. North Afr. Stud. 20:4540–52
    [Google Scholar]
83. Hainmueller J, Hopkins DJ. 2014. Public attitudes toward immigration. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 17:225–49
    [Google Scholar]
84. Hainmueller J, Hopkins DJ. 2015. The hidden American immigration consensus: a conjoint analysis of attitudes toward immigrants. Am. J. Political Sci. 59:3529–48
    [Google Scholar]
85. Hanson A, Santas M. 2014. Field experiment tests for discrimination against Hispanics in the U.S. rental housing market. South. Econ. J. 81:1135–67
    [Google Scholar]
86. Harrell A, Soroka S, Iyengar S 2017. Locus of control and anti-immigrant sentiment in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Political Psychol 38:2245–60
    [Google Scholar]
87. Hartman TK, Stocks T, McKay R, Gibson Miller J, Levita L et al. 2020. The authoritarian dynamic during the COVID-19 pandemic: effects on nationalism and anti-immigrant sentiment Work. Pap., Univ. Sheffield Sheffield, UK:
88. Haslam N. 2006. Dehumanization: an integrative review. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10:3252–64
    [Google Scholar]
89. Haslam N, Loughnan S. 2014. Dehumanization and infrahumanization. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65:399–42
    [Google Scholar]
90. Heath A, Richards L. 2019. How do Europeans differ in their attitudes to immigration? Findings from the European Social Survey 2002/03–2016/17 Work. Pap. No. 222, Org. Econ. Coop. Dev Paris:
91. Hellwig T, Sinno A. 2017. Different groups, different threats: public attitudes towards immigrants. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 43:3339–58
    [Google Scholar]
92. Hodson G, Dhont K. 2015. The person-based nature of prejudice: individual difference predictors of intergroup negativity. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 26:11–42
    [Google Scholar]
93. Hopkins DJ. 2010. Politicized places: explaining where and when immigrants provoke local opposition. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 104:140–60
    [Google Scholar]
94. Hopkins DJ, Mummolo J, Esses VM, Kaiser CR, Marrow HB, McDermott M 2016. Out of context: the absence of geographic variation in US immigrants’ perceptions of discrimination. Politics Groups Identities 4:3363–92
    [Google Scholar]
95. Hou F, Schimmele C. 2020. Adults with a health education but not working in health occupations Rep., Stat. Can Ottawa, Can:.
96. Houle R, Schellenberg G. 2010. New immigrants’ assessments of their life in Canada Work. Pap. No. 322, Stat. Can Ottawa, Can:.
97. Int. Organ. Migr 2020. World Migration Report 2020 Geneva, Switz: Int. Organ. Migr.
98. Ipsos 2016. Global views on immigration and the refugee crisis Rep., Ipsos Paris: https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/migrations/en-uk/files/Assets/Docs/Polls/ipsos-global-advisor-immigration-and-refugees-2016-charts.pdf
99. Jeong HO. 2013. Do national feelings influence public attitudes towards immigration. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 39:91461–77s
    [Google Scholar]
100. Jones KP, Peddie CI, Gilrane VL, King EB, Gray AL 2016. Not so subtle: a meta-analytic investigation of the correlates of subtle and overt discrimination. J. Manag. 42:61588–613
     [Google Scholar]
101. Kaas L, Manger C. 2011. Ethnic discrimination in Germany's labour market: a field experiment. Ger. Econ. Rev. 13:1–20
     [Google Scholar]
102. Koopmans R, Veit S, Yemane R 2019. Taste or statistics? A correspondence study of ethnic, racial and religious labour market discrimination in Germany. Ethn. Racial Stud. 42:16233–52
     [Google Scholar]
103. Kotzur PF, Friehs MT, Asbrock F, Zalk MHW 2019. Stereotype content of refugee subgroups in Germany. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 49:71344–58
     [Google Scholar]
104. Kotzur PF, Tropp LR, Wagner U 2018. Welcoming the unwelcome: how contact shapes contexts of reception for new immigrants in Germany and the United States. J. Soc. Issues 74:4812–32
     [Google Scholar]
105. Krings F, Johnston C, Binggeli S, Maggiori C 2014. Selective incivility: Immigrant groups experience subtle workplace discrimination at different rates. Cult. Divers. Ethn. Minor. Psychol. 20:4491–98
     [Google Scholar]
106. Krings F, Olivares JO. 2007. At the doorstep to employment: discrimination against immigrants as a function of applicant ethnicity, job type and raters’ prejudice. Int. J. Psychol. 42:406–17
     [Google Scholar]
107. Krogstad JM. 2019. Key facts about refugees to the U.S. Pew Research Center Oct. 7. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/10/07/key-facts-about-refugees-to-the-u-s/
     [Google Scholar]
108. Kupper B, Wolf C, Zick A 2010. Social status and anti-immigrant attitudes in Europe: an examination from the perspective of social dominance theory. Int. J. Confl. Violence 4:2205–19
     [Google Scholar]
109. Landmann H, Gaschler R, Rohmann A 2019. What is threatening about refugees? Identifying different types of threat and their association with emotional responses and attitudes towards refugee migration. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 49:71401–20
     [Google Scholar]
110. Lee TL, Fiske ST. 2006. Not an outgroup, not yet an ingroup: immigrants in the stereotype content model. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 30:6751–68
     [Google Scholar]
111. Liu CY, Painter G. 2012. Immigrant settlement and employment suburbanisation in the US: Is there a spatial mismatch. Urban Stud 49:5979–1002
     [Google Scholar]
112. Louis WR, Duck JM, Terry DJ, Schuller RA, Lalonde RN 2007. Why do citizens want to keep refugees out? Threats, fairness and hostile norms in the treatment of asylum seekers. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 37:153–73
     [Google Scholar]
113. Mackie DM, Smith ER. 2015. Intergroup emotions. See Mikulincer et al. 2015 263–93
114. Marrow HB. 2011. New Destination Dreaming: Immigration, Race, and Legal Status in the Rural American South Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
115. Martos SD. 2010. Coded codes: discriminatory intent, modern political mobilization, and local immigration ordinances. N. Y. Univ. Law Rev. 85:62099–137
     [Google Scholar]
116. Matthes J, Schmuck D. 2015. The effects of anti-immigrant right-wing populist ads on implicit and explicit attitudes: a moderated mediation model. Commun. Res. 44:4556–81
     [Google Scholar]
117. McClure HH, Snodgrass JJ, Martinez CR, Eddy JM, Jiménez RA, Isiordia LE 2010. Discrimination, psychosocial stress, and health among Latin American immigrants in Oregon. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 22:3421–23
     [Google Scholar]
118. McDaniel EL, Nooruddin IF, Shortle A 2011. Divine boundaries: how religion shapes citizens’ attitudes toward immigrants. Am. Politics Res. 39:1205–33
     [Google Scholar]
119. McKay FH, Thomas SL, Kneebone S 2012. “It would be okay if they came through the proper channels”: community perceptions and attitudes toward asylum seekers in Australia. J. Refug. Stud. 25:1113–33
     [Google Scholar]
120. Medianu S, Sutter A, Esses VM 2015. The portrayal of refugees in Canadian newspapers: the impact of the arrival of Tamil refugees by boat to Canada in 2010. IdeAs 6: https://doi.org/10.4000/ideas.1199
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
121. Messing V, Ságvári B. 2019. Still Divided but More Open: Mapping European Attitudes Towards Migration Before and After the Migration Crisis Budapest, Hung: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
122. Mikulincer M, Shaver PR, Dovidio JF, Simpson JA 2015. APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 2: Group Processes Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
     [Google Scholar]
123. Murray KE, Marx DM. 2013. Attitudes toward unauthorized immigrants, authorized immigrants, and refugees. Cult. Divers. Ethn. Minor. Psychol. 19:3332–41
     [Google Scholar]
124. Nangia P. 2013. Discrimination experienced by landed immigrants in Canada Work. Pap. No. 2013/7, Ryerson Cent. Immigr. Settl Toronto, Can:.
125. Ng ES, Gagnon SS. 2020. Employment gaps and underemployment for racialized groups and immigrants in Canada: current findings and future directions. Future Skills Centre Jan. 27. https://fsc-ccf.ca/research/employment-gaps-and-underemployment-for-racialized-groups-and-immigrants-in-canada/
     [Google Scholar]
126. Noh S, Kaspar V, Wickrama K 2007. Overt and subtle racial discrimination and mental health: preliminary findings for Korean immigrants. Am. J. Public Health 97:71269–74
     [Google Scholar]
127. Opotow S. 1995. Drawing the line: social categorization, moral exclusion, and the scope of justice. Conflict, Cooperation, and Justice: Essays Inspired by the Work of Morton Deutsch BB Bunker, JZ Rubin 347–79 San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
     [Google Scholar]
128. Oreopoulos P. 2011. Why do skilled immigrants struggle in the labor market? A field experiment with thirteen thousand resumes. Am. Econ. J. Econ. Policy 3:4148–71
     [Google Scholar]
129. Papademetriou DG, Banulescu-Bogdan N. 2016. Understanding and addressing public anxiety about immigration Rep., Migr. Policy Inst Washington, DC: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/understanding-and-addressing-public-anxiety-about-immigration
130. Pehrson S, Green EGT. 2010. Who we are and who can join us: national identity content and entry criteria for new immigrants. J. Soc. Issues 66:695–716
     [Google Scholar]
131. Penner LA, Hagiwara N, Eggly S, Gaertner SL, Albrecht TL, Dovidio JF 2013. Racial healthcare disparities: a social psychological analysis. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 24:170–122
     [Google Scholar]
132. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2006. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90:751–83
     [Google Scholar]
133. Pichler F. 2010. Foundations of anti-immigrant sentiment: the variable nature of perceived group threat across changing European societies, 2002–2006. Int. J. Comp. Sociol. 51:6445–69
     [Google Scholar]
134. Pierné G. 2013. Hiring discrimination based on national origin and religious closeness: results from a field experiment in the Paris area. IZA J. Labor Econ. 2:14
     [Google Scholar]
135. Pottie-Sherman Y, Wilkes R. 2017. Does size really matter? On the relationship between immigrant group size and anti-immigrant prejudice. Int. Migr. Rev. 51:218–50
     [Google Scholar]
136. Ramos MR, Bennett MR, Massey DS, Hewstone M 2019. Humans adapt to social diversity over time. PNAS 116:2512244–49
     [Google Scholar]
137. Rao B. 2001. Economic migrants in a global labour market: a report on the recruitment and retention of Asian computer professionals by Canadian high tech firms CPRN Discuss. Pap. No. W13, Can. Policy Res. Netw Ottawa, Can:.
138. Reitz JG. 2007. Immigrant employment success in Canada, part I: individual and contextual causes. J. Int. Migr. Integr. 8:11–36
     [Google Scholar]
139. Reitz JG, Banerjee R. 2007. Racial inequality, social cohesion and policy issues in Canada. Belonging? Diversity, Recognition and Shared Citizenship in Canada K Banting, TJ Courchene, FL Seidle 489–545 Montreal, Can: Inst. Res. Public Policy
     [Google Scholar]
140. Reitz JG, Curtis J, Elrick J 2014. Immigrant skill utilization: trends and policy issues. J. Int. Migr. Integr. 15:11–26
     [Google Scholar]
141. Reyna C, Dobria O, Wetherell G 2013. The complexity and ambivalence of immigration attitudes: Ambivalent stereotypes predict conflicting attitudes toward immigration policies. Cult. Divers. Ethn. Minor. Psychol. 19:3342–56
     [Google Scholar]
142. Rich J. 2014. What do field experiments of discrimination in markets tell us? A meta analysis of studies conducted since 2000 IZA Discuss. Pap. No. 8584, Inst. Study Labor Bonn, Ger:.
143. Rooth DO. 2010. Automatic associations and discrimination in hiring: real world evidence. Labour Econ 17:3523–34
     [Google Scholar]
144. Rousseau C, Hassan G, Moreau N, Thombs BD 2011. Perceived discrimination and its association with psychological distress among newly arrived immigrants before and after September 11, 2001. Am. J. Public Health 101:5909–15
     [Google Scholar]
145. Rucker JM, Murphy MC, Quintanilla VD 2019. The immigrant labeling effect: the role of immigrant group labels in prejudice against noncitizens. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 22:81139–60
     [Google Scholar]
146. Safi M. 2009. Immigrants’ life satisfaction in Europe: between assimilation and discrimination. Eur. Sociol. Rev. 26:2159–76
     [Google Scholar]
147. Schemer C. 2012. The influence of news media on stereotypic attitudes toward immigrants in a political campaign. J. Commun. 62:5739–57
     [Google Scholar]
148. Schmader T, Hall H, Croft A 2015. Stereotype threat in intergroup relations. See Mikulincer et al. 2015 447–71
149. Schmitt MT, Branscombe NR, Postmes T, Garcia A 2014. The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 140:921–48
     [Google Scholar]
150. Schmuck D, Matthes J. 2015. How anti-immigrant right-wing populist advertisements affect young voters: symbolic threats, economic threats and the moderating role of education. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 41:101577–99
     [Google Scholar]
151. Schmuck D, Matthes J. 2017. Effects of economic and symbolic threat appeals in right-wing populist advertising on anti-immigrant attitudes: the impact of textual and visual appeals. Political Commun 34:4607–26
     [Google Scholar]
152. Schunck R, Reiss K, Razum O 2015. Pathways between perceived discrimination and health among immigrants: evidence from a large national panel survey in Germany. Ethn. Health 20:5493–510
     [Google Scholar]
153. Smith SS. 2010. Race and trust. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 36:453–75
     [Google Scholar]
154. Stephan WG, Stephan CW. 2000. An integrated threat theory of prejudice. Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination S Oskamp 23–45 Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
     [Google Scholar]
155. Stephan WG, Ybarra O, Morrison KR 2016. Intergroup threat theory. Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination TD Nelson 43–60 New York: Psychol. Press
     [Google Scholar]
156. Strabac Z. 2011. It is the eyes and not the size that matter. Eur. Soc. 13:4559–82
     [Google Scholar]
157. Suleymanova R. 2020. Will Trump's “public charge” rule keep poor migrants out of the US. Al Jazeera Feb. 23. https://www.aljazeera.com/ajimpact/trump-public-charge-rule-poor-migrants-200221145601189.html
     [Google Scholar]
158. Sutter A. 2017. The behavioural consequences of the implicit and explicit dehumanization of refugees PhD Thesis, Western Univ London, Can:.
159. Szaflarski M, Bauldry S. 2019. The effects of perceived discrimination on immigrant and refugee physical and mental health. Immigration and Health R Frank 173–204 Bingley, UK: Emerald Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
160. Tews MJ, Tracey JB. 2008. An empirical examination of post training on-the-job supplements for enhancing the effectiveness of interpersonal skills training. Pers. Psychol. 61:375–401
     [Google Scholar]
161. Triadafilopoulos T. 2010. Global norms, domestic institutions and the transformation of immigration policy in Canada and the US. Rev. Int. Stud. 36:1169–93
     [Google Scholar]
162. Tropp LR, Okamoto D, Marrow H, Jones-Correa M 2016. Empathy and apathy: predicting White and Black Americans’ attitudes toward immigration Paper presented at the SPSSI-SASP Small Group Meeting on Immigration to Major Immigrant-Receiving Countries Ottawa, Can:.
163. UNHCR (UN High Comm. Refug.) 2020. Global trends: forced displacement in 2019. UNHCR June 18. https://www.unhcr.org/globaltrends2019/
     [Google Scholar]
164. Van der Bracht K, Coenen A, Van de Putte B 2015. The not-in-my-property syndrome: the occurrence of ethnic discrimination in the rental housing market in Belgium. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 41:158–75
     [Google Scholar]
165. Vang ZM, Chang Y. 2019. Immigrants’ experiences of everyday discrimination in Canada: unpacking the contributions of assimilation, race, and early socialization. Int. Migr. Rev. 53:2602–31
     [Google Scholar]
166. Veit S, Thijsen L. 2019. Almost identical but still treated differently: hiring discrimination against foreign-born and domestic-born minorities. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. In press. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1622825
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
167. Viruell-Fuentes EA, Miranda PY, Abdulrahim S 2012. More than culture: structural racism, intersectionality theory, and immigrant health. Soc. Sci. Med. 75:122099–106
     [Google Scholar]
168. Wallrich L, West K, Rutland A 2020. Painting all foreigners with one brush? How the salience of Muslims and refugees shapes judgements. J. Soc. Political Psychol. 8:246–65
     [Google Scholar]
169. Weichselbaumer D. 2016a. Discrimination against female migrants wearing headscarves IZA Discuss. Pap. No. 10217, Inst. Study Labor Bonn, Ger:.
170. Weichselbaumer D. 2016b. Discrimination against migrant job applicants in Austria: an experimental study. Ger. Econ. Rev. 18:237–65
     [Google Scholar]
171. Welcoming Cent. New Pennsylvanians 2013. Making an IMPRINT: skilled immigrants in Pennsylvania Rep., Welcoming Cent. New Pennsylvanians Philadelphia, PA: http://www.weglobalnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/WCNP-Making-an-IMPRINT-PAs-skilled-immigrants-data-snapshot-FINAL.pdf
172. Wike R, Stokes B, Simmons K 2016. Europeans fear wave of refugees will mean more terrorism, fewer jobs. Pew Research Center July 11. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/
     [Google Scholar]
173. Wilkes R, Corrigall-Brown C. 2011. Explaining time trends in public opinion: attitudes towards immigration and immigrants. Int. J. Comp. Sociol. 52:1–279–99
     [Google Scholar]
174. Wilkes R, Wu C. 2019. Immigration, discrimination, and trust: a simply complex relationship. Front. Sociol. 4:32
     [Google Scholar]
175. Willis-Esqueda C, Delgado RH, Pedroza K 2017. Patriotism and the impact on perceived threat and immigration attitudes. J. Soc. Psychol. 157:1114–25
     [Google Scholar]
176. Wirz DS, Wettstein M, Schulz A, Müller P, Schemer C et al. 2018. The effects of right-wing populist communication on emotions and cognitions toward immigrants. Int. J. Press/Politics 23:4496–516
     [Google Scholar]
177. Wright M, Levy M, Citrin J 2016. Public attitudes toward immigration policy across the legal/illegal divide: the role of categorical and attribute-based decision-making. Political Behav 38:1229–53
     [Google Scholar]
178. Xue L, Xu L. 2010. Employment outcomes of postsecondary educated immigrants, 2006 census Res. Rep., Citizenship Immigr. Can Ottawa, Can:.
179. Zschirnt E, Ruedin D. 2016. Ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions: a meta-analysis of correspondence tests 1990–2015. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 42:71115–34
     [Google Scholar]