1932

Abstract

The impact of toxins on the developing brain is usually subtle for an individual child, but the damage can be substantial at the population level. Numerous challenges must be addressed to definitively test the impact of toxins on brain development in children: We must quantify exposure using a biologic marker or pollutant; account for an ever-expanding set of potential confounders; identify critical windows of vulnerability; and repeatedly examine the association of biologic markers of toxins with intellectual abilities, behaviors, and brain function in distinct cohorts. Despite these challenges, numerous toxins have been implicated in the development of intellectual deficits and mental disorders in children. Yet, too little has been done to protect children from these ubiquitous but insidious toxins. The objective of this review is to provide an overview on the population impact of toxins on the developing brain and describe implications for public health.

Associated Article

There are media items related to this article:
The Impact of Toxins on the Developing Brain: Video 2

Associated Article

There are media items related to this article:
The Impact of Toxins on the Developing Brain: Video 1
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413
2015-03-18
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/36/1/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alyea RA, Watson CS. 1.  2009. Differential regulation of dopamine transporter function and location by low concentrations of environmental estrogens and 17β-estradiol. Environ. Health Perspect. 117:778–83 [Google Scholar]
  2. 2. Am. Acad. Pediatr. Counc. on Environ. Health 2011. Policy statement on chemical management policy: prioritizing children's health. Pediatrics 127:983–90 [Google Scholar]
  3. 3. Am. Psychiatr. Assoc., Task Force on DSM-IV 2000. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc, 4th ed..
  4. Arora M, Kennedy BJ, Pearson N, Elhlou S, Walker DM, Chan SWY. 4.  2006. Spatial distribution of lead in human primary teeth as a biomarker for pre- and neonatal lead exposure. Sci. Total Environ. 371:55–62 [Google Scholar]
  5. Baccarelli A, Bollati V. 5.  2009. Epigenetics and environmental chemicals. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 21:243–51 [Google Scholar]
  6. Bakulski KM, Rozek LS, Dolinoy DC, Paulson HL, Hu H. 6.  2012. Alzheimer's disease and environmental exposure to lead: the epidemiologic evidence and potential role of epigenetics. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 9:563–73 [Google Scholar]
  7. Basha MR, Wei W, Bakheet SA, Benitez N, Siddiqi HK. 7.  et al. 2005. The fetal basis of amyloidogenesis: exposure to lead and latent overexpression of amyloid precursor protein and β-amyloid in the aging brain. J. Neurosci. 25:823–29 [Google Scholar]
  8. Becerra T, Wilhelm M, Olsen J, Cockburn M, Ritz B. 8.  2013. Ambient air pollution and autism in Los Angeles County, California. Environ. Health Perspect. 121:380–86 [Google Scholar]
  9. Bellinger DC. 9.  2004. Assessing environmental neurotoxicant exposures and child neurobehavior: confounded by confounding?. Epidemiology 15:383–84 [Google Scholar]
  10. Bellinger DC. 10.  2012. A strategy for comparing the contributions of environmental chemicals and other risk factors to neurodevelopment of children. Environ. Health Perspect. 120:501–7 [Google Scholar]
  11. Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. 11.  2010. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics 125:e1270–77 [Google Scholar]
  12. Bouchard MF, Chevrier J, Harley KG, Kogut K, Vedar M. 12.  et al. 2011. Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and IQ in 7-year-old children. Environ. Health Perspect. 119:1189–95 [Google Scholar]
  13. Boucher O, Jacobson SW, Plusquellec P, Dewailly E, Ayotte P. 13.  et al. 2012. Prenatal methylmercury, postnatal lead exposure, and evidence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among Inuit children in Arctic Quebec. Environ. Health Perspect. 120:1456–61 [Google Scholar]
  14. Boyle CA, Boulet S, Schieve LA, Cohen RA, Blumberg SJ. 14.  et al. 2011. Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997–2008. Pediatrics 127:1034–42 [Google Scholar]
  15. Braun J, Froehlich TE, Daniels JL, Dietrich KN, Hornung R. 15.  et al. 2008. Association of environmental toxicants and conduct disorder in U.S. children: NHANES 2001–2004. Environ. Health Perspect. 116:956–62 [Google Scholar]
  16. Braun J, Kalkbrenner A, Calafat A, Yolton K, Xiaoyun Y. 16.  et al. 2011. Impact of early life bisphenol A exposure on behavior and executive function in children. Pediatrics 128:873–82 [Google Scholar]
  17. Braun JM, Kalkbrenner AE, Just AC, Yolton K, Calafat AM. 17.  et al. 2014. Gestational exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and reciprocal, repetitive, and stereotypic behaviors in 4- and 5-year-old children: the HOME Study. Environ. Health Perspect. 122:513–20 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bublitz MH, Stroud LR. 18.  2012. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring brain structure and function: review and agenda for future research. Nicotine Tob. Res. 14:388–97 [Google Scholar]
  19. Canfield RL, Henderson CR, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP. 19.  2003. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 micrograms per deciliter. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:1517–26 [Google Scholar]
  20. 20. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2010. Increasing prevalence of parent-reported attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children: United States, 2003 and 2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 59:1439–43 [Google Scholar]
  21. 21. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2014. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders among children aged 8 years—Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2010. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 63:1–21 [Google Scholar]
  22. 22. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.), Advis. Comm. Child. Lead Poisoning Prev 2012. Low-Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call for Primary Prevention Atlanta: CDC http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/final_document_030712.pdf
  23. Cecil KM, Brubaker CJ, Adler CM, Dietrich KN, Altaye M. 23.  et al. 2008. Decreased brain volume in adults with childhood lead exposure. PLOS Med. 5:e112 [Google Scholar]
  24. Chen A, Yolton K, Rauch SA, Webster GM, Hornung R. 24.  et al. 2014. Prenatal polybrominated diphenyl ether exposures and neurodevelopment in U.S. children through 5 years of age: the HOME Study. Environ. Health Perspect. 122856–62
  25. Chen J, Kumar M, Chan W, Berkowitz G, Wetmur JG. 25.  2003. Increased influence of genetic variation on PON1 activity in neonates. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:1403–9 [Google Scholar]
  26. Chen YCJ, Guo YL, Hsu CC, Rogan WJ. 26.  1992. Cognitive development of Yu-Cheng (“Oil Disease”) children prenatally exposed to heat-degraded PCBs. JAMA 268:3213–18 [Google Scholar]
  27. Chevrier J, Gunier RB, Bradman A, Holland NT, Calafat AM. 27.  et al. 2012. Maternal urinary bisphenol A during pregnancy and maternal and neonatal thyroid function in the CHAMACOS Study. Environ. Health Perspect. 121:138–44 [Google Scholar]
  28. Chevrier J, Harley KG, Bradman A, Gharbi M, Sjödin A, Eskenazi B. 28.  2010. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants and thyroid hormone during pregnancy. Environ. Health Perspect. 118:1444–49 [Google Scholar]
  29. Chiodo LM, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. 29.  2004. Neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal lead exposure at very low levels. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 26:359–71 [Google Scholar]
  30. Choi AL, Cordier S, Weihe P, Grandjean P. 30.  2008. Negative confounding in the evaluation of toxicity; the case of methylmercury in fish and seafood. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 38:877–93 [Google Scholar]
  31. Christensen J, Gronborg TK, Sørensen MJ, Schendel D, Parner ET. 31.  et al. 2013. Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism. JAMA 309:1696–1703 [Google Scholar]
  32. Delville Y. 32.  1999. Exposure to lead during development alters aggressive behavior in golden hamsters. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 21:445–49 [Google Scholar]
  33. Dietrich KN, Eskenazi B, Schantz S, Yolton K, Rauh VA. 33.  et al. 2005. Principles and practices of neurodevelopmental assessment in children: lessons learned from the Centers for Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research. Environ. Health Perspect. 113:1437–46 [Google Scholar]
  34. DiFranza JR, Aligne CA, Weitzman M. 34.  2004. Prenatal and postnatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure and children's health. Pediatrics 113:1007–15 [Google Scholar]
  35. Engel SM, Wetmur J, Chen J, Zhu C, Barr DB. 35.  et al. 2011. Prenatal exposure to organophosphates, paraoxonase 1, and cognitive development in childhood. Environ. Health Perspect. 119:1182–88 [Google Scholar]
  36. Eskenazi B, Chevrier J, Rauch SA, Kogut K, Harley KG. 36.  et al. 2013. In utero and childhood polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposures and neurodevelopment in the CHAMACOS Study. Environ. Health Perspect. 121:257–62 [Google Scholar]
  37. Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Fenster L, Johnson C. 37.  et al. 2006. In utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and neurodevelopment among young Mexican American children. Pediatrics 118:233–41 [Google Scholar]
  38. Eskenazi B, Rosas LG, Marks AR, Bradman A, Harley K. 38.  et al. 2008. Pesticide toxicity and the developing brain. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 102:228–36 [Google Scholar]
  39. Eubig PA, Aguiar A, Schantz SL. 39.  2010. Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Environ. Health Perspect. 118:1654–67 [Google Scholar]
  40. Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ. 40.  2008. Dentine levels in childhood and criminal behaviour in later adolescence and early adulthood. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 62:1045–50 [Google Scholar]
  41. Fergusson DM, Fergusson JE, Horwood LJ, Kinzett NG. 41.  1988. A longitudinal study of dentine lead levels, intelligence, school performance and behaviour. Part III. Dentine lead levels and attention/activity. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 29:811–24 [Google Scholar]
  42. Flom JD, Ferris JS, Liao Y. 42.  2011. Prenatal smoke exposure and genomic DNA methylation in a multiethnic birth cohort. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 20:2518–23 [Google Scholar]
  43. Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Auinger P, Hornung R, Epstein JN. 43.  et al. 2009. The association of tobacco and lead exposure with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Pediatrics 124:e1054–63 [Google Scholar]
  44. Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Epstein JN, Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Kahn RS. 44.  2007. Prevalence, recognition and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 161:857–64 [Google Scholar]
  45. Frye RE, Sequeira JM, Quadros EV, James SJ, Rossignol DA. 45.  2013. Cerebral folate receptor autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 18:369–89 [Google Scholar]
  46. Gascon M, Vrijheid VM, Martínez D, Forns J, Grimalt JO. 46.  et al. 2011. Effects of pre and postnatal exposure to low levels of polybromodiphenyl ethers on neurodevelopment and thyroid hormone levels at 4 years of age. Environ. Int. 37:605–11 [Google Scholar]
  47. Gilbert SG, Weiss B. 47.  2006. A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2 μg/dL. Neurotoxicology 27:693–701 [Google Scholar]
  48. Grandjean P, Landrigan P. 48.  2006. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 368:2167–78 [Google Scholar]
  49. Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF, Debes F, Araki S. 49.  et al. 1997. Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 19:417–28 [Google Scholar]
  50. Hallmayer J, Cleveland S, Torres A, Phillips J, Cohen B. 50.  et al. 2011. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68:1095–102 [Google Scholar]
  51. Harada M. 51.  1995. Minamata disease: methylmercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 25:1–24 [Google Scholar]
  52. Herbstman JB, Sjödin A, Kurzon M, Lederman SA, Jones RS. 52.  et al. 2010. Prenatal exposure to PBDEs and neurodevelopment. Environ. Health Perspect. 118:712–19 [Google Scholar]
  53. Hertz-Picciotto I, Delwiche L. 53.  2009. The rise in autism and the role of age at diagnosis. Epidemiology 20:84–90 [Google Scholar]
  54. Hoffman K, Webster TF, Weisskopf MG, Weinberg J, Vieira VM. 54.  2010. Exposure to polyfluoroalkyl chemicals and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in US children, 12 to 15 years of age. Environ. Health Perspect 118:1762–67 [Google Scholar]
  55. Hornung RW, Lanphear BP, Dietrich KN. 55.  2009. Age of greatest susceptibility to childhood lead exposure: a new statistical approach. Environ. Health Perspect 117:1309–12 [Google Scholar]
  56. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. 56.  1996. Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N. Engl. J. Med 335:783–89 [Google Scholar]
  57. Jones DC, Miller GW. 57.  2008. The effects of environmental neurotoxicants on the dopaminergic system: a possible role in drug addiction. Biochem. Pharmacol 76:569–81 [Google Scholar]
  58. Jusko TA, Klebanoff MA, Brick JW, Longnecker MP. 58.  2012. In-utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and cognitive development among infants and school-aged children. Epidemiology 23:689–98 [Google Scholar]
  59. Kahn RS, Khoury J, Nichols WC, Lanphear BP. 59.  2003. Role of dopamine transporter genotype and maternal prenatal smoking in childhood hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional behaviors. J. Pediatr 143:104–10 [Google Scholar]
  60. Kalkbrenner AE, Daniels JL, Chen J-C, Poole C, Emch M, Morrissey J. 60.  2010. Perinatal exposure to hazardous air pollutants and autism spectrum disorders at age 8. Epidemiology 21:631–41 [Google Scholar]
  61. Karagas MR, Choi AL, Oken E, Horvat M, Schoeny R. 61.  et al. 2012. Evidence on the human health effects of low-level methyl mercury exposure. Environ. Health Perspect 120:799–806 [Google Scholar]
  62. Kim B-N, Cho S-C, Kim Y, Shin M-S, Yoo H-J. 62.  et al. 2009. Phthalates exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in school-age children. Biol. Psychiatry 66:958–63 [Google Scholar]
  63. Landrigan PJ. 63.  2010. What causes autism? Exploring the environmental contribution. Curr. Opin. Pediatr 22:219–25 [Google Scholar]
  64. Langley K, Rice F, van de Bree MB, Thapar A. 64.  2005. Maternal smoking during pregnancy as an environmental risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder behaviour. A review. Minerva Pediatr 57:359–71 [Google Scholar]
  65. Lanphear BP. 65.  2012. ADHD: a preventable epidemic?. Arch. Pediat. Adolesc. Med 130:1406–15 [Google Scholar]
  66. Lanphear BP, Bearer CF. 66.  2005. Biomarkers in paediatric research and clinical practice. Arch. Dis. Child 90:594–600 [Google Scholar]
  67. Lanphear BP, Dietrich KN, Berger O. 67.  2003. Prevention of lead toxicity in US children. Ambul. Pediatr 3:27–36 [Google Scholar]
  68. Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P. 68.  et al. 2005. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ. Health Perspect 113:894–99 [Google Scholar]
  69. Lanphear BP, Hornung RW, Khoury J, Dietrich KN, Cory-Slechta DA, Canfield RL. 69.  2008. The conundrum of unmeasured confounding. Sci. Total Environ 396:196–200 [Google Scholar]
  70. Lanphear BP, Vorhees CV, Bellinger DC. 70.  2005. Protecting children from environmental toxins. PLOS Med 2:3e61 [Google Scholar]
  71. Laughlin NK, Bushnell PJ, Bowman RE. 71.  1991. Lead exposure and diet: differential effects on social development in the rhesus monkey. Neurotoxicol. Teratol 13:429–40 [Google Scholar]
  72. Liu J, Lester BM, Neyzi N, Sheinkopf SJ, Gracia L. 72.  et al. 2013. Regional brain morphometry and impulsivity in adolescents following prenatal exposure to cocaine and tobacco. JAMA Pediatr 167:348–54 [Google Scholar]
  73. Marcus DK, Fulton JJ, Clarke EJ. 73.  2010. Lead and conduct problems: a meta-analysis. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol 39:234–41 [Google Scholar]
  74. Meeker JD, Ferguson KK. 74.  2011. Relationship between urinary phthalate and bisphenol A concentrations and serum thyroid measures in U.S. adults and adolescents from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2008. Environ. Health Perspect 119:1396–402 [Google Scholar]
  75. Mergler D, Baldwin M, Bélanger S, Larribe F, Beuter A. 75.  et al. 1999. Manganese neurotoxicity, a continuum of dysfunction: results from a community-based study. Neurotoxicology 20:327–42 [Google Scholar]
  76. Merikangas KR, He JP, Brody D, Fisher PW, Bourdon K, Koretz DS. 76.  2010. Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders among US children in the 2001–2004 NHANES. Pediatrics 125:75–81 [Google Scholar]
  77. Morales E, Sunyer J, Castro-Giner F, Estivill X, Julvez J. 77.  et al. 2008. Influence of glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms on cognitive functioning effects induced by p,p'-DDT among preschoolers. Environ. Health Perspect 116:1581–85 [Google Scholar]
  78. Myers GJ, Davidson PW, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Palumbo D. 78.  et al. 2003. Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study. Lancet 361:1686–92 [Google Scholar]
  79. 79. Natl. Res. Counc 2000. Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  80. 80. Natl. Toxicol. Progr 2012. Health Effects of Low-Level Lead NTP Monogr. Research Triangle Park, NC: Natl. Inst. Environ. Health Sci., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ohat/lead/final/monographhealtheffectslowlevellead_newissn_508.pdf
  81. Needleman HL, Bellinger DC. 81.  1991. The health effects of low level exposure to lead. Annu. Rev. Public Health 12111–40 [Google Scholar]
  82. Needleman HL, Gunnoe C, Leviton A, Reed R, Peresie H. 82.  et al. 1979. Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. N. Engl. J. Med 300:689–95 [Google Scholar]
  83. Needleman HL, Schell A, Bellinger D, Leviton A, Allred EN. 83.  1990. The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood. An 11-year follow-up report. N. Engl. J. Med 322:83–88 [Google Scholar]
  84. Nevin R. 84.  2000. How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime and unwed pregnancy. Environ. Res 83:1–22 [Google Scholar]
  85. Newman NC, Ryan P, LeMasters G, Levin L, Bernstein D. 85.  et al. 2013. Traffic-related air pollution exposure in the first year of life and behavioral scores at 7 years of age. Environ. Health Perspect 121:731–36 [Google Scholar]
  86. Nigg JT, Knotternerus GM, Martell MM, Nikolas M, Cavanagh K. 86.  et al. 2008. Low blood lead levels associated with clinical diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mediated by weak cognitive control. Biol. Psychiatry 63:325–31 [Google Scholar]
  87. Ohira M, Aoyama H. 87.  1973. Epidemiological studies on the Morinaga powdered milk poisoning incident. Nihon Eiseigaku Zasshi 27:500–31 in Japanese [Google Scholar]
  88. Oken E, Wright RO, Kleinman KP, Bellinger D, Amarasiriwardena CJ. 88.  et al. 2005. Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. cohort. Environ. Health Perspect 113:1376–80 [Google Scholar]
  89. Patisaul HB, Sullivan AW, Radford ME, Walker DM, Adewale HB. 89.  et al. 2012. Anxiogenic effects of developmental bisphenol A exposure are associated with gene expression changes in the juvenile rat amygdala and mitigated by soy. PLOS ONE 7:e43890 [Google Scholar]
  90. Perera F, Herbstman J. 90.  2011. Prenatal environmental exposures, epigenetics, and disease. Reprod. Toxicol 31:363–73 [Google Scholar]
  91. Perera FP, Li Z, Whyatt R, Hoepner L, Wang S. 91.  et al. 2009. Prenatal airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure and child IQ at age 5 years. Pediatrics 124:e195–202 [Google Scholar]
  92. Perera FP, Tang D, Wang S, Vishnevetsky J, Zhang B. 92.  et al. 2012. Prenatal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and child behavior at 6–7 years. Environ. Health Perspect 120:921–26 [Google Scholar]
  93. Perera FP, Wang S, Rauh V, Zhou H, Stigter L. 93.  et al. 2013. Prenatal exposure to air pollution, maternal psychological distress, and child behavior. Pediatrics 132:e1284 [Google Scholar]
  94. Pilsner JR, Hu H, Ettinger A, Sanchez BN, Wright RO. 94.  et al. 2009. Influence of prenatal lead exposure on genomic methylation of cord blood DNA. Environ. Health Perspect 117:1466–71 [Google Scholar]
  95. Ramaekers VT, Quadros EV, Sequeira JM. 95.  2013. Role of folate receptor autoantibodies in infantile autism. Mol. Psychiatry 18:270–71 [Google Scholar]
  96. Ramirez GB, Cruz MC, Pagulayan O, Ostrea E, Dalisay C. 96.  2000. The Tagum Study I: analysis and clinical correlates of mercury in maternal and cord blood, breast milk and meconium and infants' hair. Pediatrics 106:774–81 [Google Scholar]
  97. Rauh V, Arunajadai S, Horton M, Perera F, Hoepner L. 97.  et al. 2011. Seven-year neurodevelopmental scores and prenatal exposure to chlopyrifos, a common agricultural pesticide. Environ. Health Perpsect 119:1196–201 [Google Scholar]
  98. Rauh VA, Perera FP, Horton MK, Whyatt RM, Bansal R. 98.  et al. 2012. Brain anomalies in children exposed prenatally to a common organophosphate pesticide. PNAS 109:7871–76 [Google Scholar]
  99. Reyes JW. 99.  2007. Environmental policy as social policy? The impact of childhood lead exposure on crime. B.E. J. Econ. Anal. Policy 7:1–41 [Google Scholar]
  100. Ribas-Fitó, Torrent M, Carrizo D, Muñoz-Ortiz L, Júlvez J. 100.  et al. 2006. In utero exposure to background concentrations of DDT and cognitive functioning among preschoolers. Am. J. Epidemiol 164:955–62 [Google Scholar]
  101. Rice D, Barone S Jr. 101.  2000. Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: evidence from humans and animals. Environ. Health Perspect 108:Suppl. 3511–33 [Google Scholar]
  102. Roberts AL, Lyall K, Hart JE, Laden F, Just AC. 102.  et al. 2013. Perinatal air pollutant exposures and autism spectrum disorder in the children of Nurses' Health Study II participants. Environ. Health Perspect 121:978–84 [Google Scholar]
  103. Rogan WJ. 103.  1995. Environmental poisoning of children—lessons from the past. Environ. Health Perspect 103:Suppl. 619–23 [Google Scholar]
  104. Rodier PM. 104.  1995. Developing brain as a target of toxicity. Environ. Health Perspect 103:73–76 [Google Scholar]
  105. Rose G, Khaw K-T, Marmot M. 105.  1993. Rose's Strategy of Preventive Medicine Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  106. Roze E, Meijer L, Bakker A, Van Braeckel KNJA, Sauer PJJ, Bos AF. 106.  2009. Prenatal exposure to organohalogens, including brominated flame-retardants, influences motor, cognitive, and behavioral performance at school age. Environ. Health Perspect 117:1953–58 [Google Scholar]
  107. Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Tolbert PE, Altshul LM. 107.  et al. 2010. Prenatal organochlorine exposure and behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in school-aged children. Am. J. Epidemiol 171:593–601 [Google Scholar]
  108. Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Amarasiriwardena C, Korrick SA. 108.  2012. Prenatal exposure to mercury and fish consumption during pregnancy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related behavior in children. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med 166:1123–31 [Google Scholar]
  109. Schantz SL, Widholm JJ, Rice DC. 109.  2003. Effects of PCB exposure on neuropsychological function in children. Environ. Health Perspect 111:357–76 [Google Scholar]
  110. Schneider JS, Huang FN, Vemuri MC. 110.  2003. Effects of low-level lead exposure on cell survival and neurite length in primary mesencephalic cultures. Neurotoxicol. Teratol 25:555–59 [Google Scholar]
  111. Schwartz BS, Lee BK, Bandeen-Roche K, Stewart W, Bolla K. 111.  et al. 2005. Occupational lead exposure and longitudinal decline in neurobehavioral test scores. Epidemiology 16:106–13 [Google Scholar]
  112. Sexton K, Needham LL, Pirkle JL. 112.  2004. Human biomonitoring of environmental chemicals. Am. Sci 92:38–45 [Google Scholar]
  113. Stewart PW, Lonky E, Reihman J, Pagano J, Gump BB, Darvill T. 113.  2008. The relationship between prenatal PCB exposure and intelligence (IQ) in 9-year-old children. Environ. Health Perspect 116:1416–22 [Google Scholar]
  114. Stewart PW, Sarget DM, Reihman J, Gump BB, Lonky E. 114.  et al. 2006. Response inhibition during differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL) schedules may be sensitive to low-level polychlorinated biphenyl, methylmercury, and lead exposure in children. Environ. Health Perspect 114:1923–29 [Google Scholar]
  115. Suglia SF, Gryparis A, Wright RO, Schwartz J, Wright RJ. 115.  2008. Association of black carbon with cognition among children in a prospective birth cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol 167:280–86 [Google Scholar]
  116. Suren P, Roth C, Bresnahan M, Haugen M, Hornig M. 116.  et al. 2013. Association between maternal use of folic acid supplements and risk of autism spectrum disorders in children. JAMA 309:570–77 [Google Scholar]
  117. Swanson JM, Kinsbourne M, Nigg J, Lanphear B, Stefanatos GA. 117.  et al. 2007. Etiologic subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: brain imaging, molecular genetic and environmental factors and the dopamine hypothesis. Neuropsychol. Rev 17:39–59 [Google Scholar]
  118. Szatmari P. 118.  2011. Is autism, at least in part, a disorder of fetal programming?. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68:1091–92 [Google Scholar]
  119. Tang D, Lee J, Muirhead L, Ting YL, Lirong Q. 119.  et al. 2014. Molecular and neurodevelopmental benefits to children of closure of a coal burning power plant in China. PLOS ONE 9:e91966 [Google Scholar]
  120. Teicher MH, Polcari A, Foley M, Valente E, McGreenery CE. 120.  et al. 2006. Methylphenidate blood levels and therapeutic response in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: I. Effect of different dosing regimens. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharm 16:416–31 [Google Scholar]
  121. Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K. 121.  2013. What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. J. Child Psychol. Psychiat 54:3–16 [Google Scholar]
  122. Thomson GOB, Raab GM, Hepburn WS, Hunter R, Fulton M, Laxen DHP. 122.  1989. Blood-lead levels and children behavior—results from the Edinburgh lead study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 30:515–28 [Google Scholar]
  123. Torres-Sánchez L, Rothenberg SJ, Schnaas L, Cebrián ME, Osorio E. 123.  et al. 2007. In utero p,p′-DDE exposure and infant neurodevelopment: a perinatal cohort in Mexico. Environ. Health Perspect 115:435–39 [Google Scholar]
  124. Trasande L, Liu Y. 124.  2011. Reducing the staggering costs of environmental disease in children, estimated at $76.6 billion in 2008. Health Aff 30:1–8 [Google Scholar]
  125. Turner AJ. 125.  1908. Lead poisoning in childhood. Australas. Med. Congr 1908:2–9 [Google Scholar]
  126. Volk HE, Lurmann F, Penfold B, Hertz-Picciotto I, McConnell R. 126.  2013. Traffic-related air pollution, particulate matter, and autism. JAMA Psychiatry 70:71–77 [Google Scholar]
  127. Walkowiak J, Wiener JA, Fastabend A, Heinzow B, Krämer U. 127.  et al. 2001. Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and quality of the home environment: effects on psychodevelopment in early childhood. Lancet 358:1602–7 [Google Scholar]
  128. Wasserman GA, Liu X, Parvez F, Ahsan H, Factor-Litvak P. 128.  et al. 2004. Water arsenic exposure and children's intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environ. Health Perspect 112:1329–33 [Google Scholar]
  129. Wasserman GA, Liu X, Parvez F, Ahsan H, Levy D. 129.  et al. 2006. Water manganese exposure and children's intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environ. Health Perspect 114:124–29 [Google Scholar]
  130. Weiss B. 130.  2000. Vulnerability of children and the developing brain to neurotoxic hazards. Environ. Health Perspect 108:Suppl. 3375–81 [Google Scholar]
  131. Weisskopf MG, Wright RO, Schwartz J, Schwartz J, Spiro A III. 131.  et al. 2004. Cumulative lead exposure and prospective change in cognition among elderly men: the VA Normative Aging Study. Am. J. Epidemiol 160:1184–93 [Google Scholar]
  132. White RF, Diamond R, Proctor S, Morey C, Hu H. 132.  1993. Residual cognitive deficits 50 years after lead poisoning during childhood. Br. J. Ind. Med 50:613–22 [Google Scholar]
  133. Windham GC, Zhang L, Gunier R, Croen LA, Grether JK. 133.  2006. Autism spectrum disorders in relation to distribution of hazardous air pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Area. Environ. Health Perspect 114:1438–44 [Google Scholar]
  134. Woodruff TJ, Zota AR, Schwartz JM. 134.  2011. Environmental chemicals in pregnant women in the United States: NHANES 2003–2004. Environ. Health Perspect 119:6878–85 [Google Scholar]
  135. Wright JP, Dietrich KN, Ris MD, Hornung RW, Wessel SD. 135.  et al. 2008. Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood. PLOS Med 5:e01 [Google Scholar]
  136. Wu J, Basha R, Brock B, Cox DP, Cardozo-Pelaez F. 136.  et al. 2008. Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like pathology in aged monkeys following infantile exposure to environmental metal lead (Pb): evidence for a developmental origin and environmental link for AD. J. Neurosci 28:3–9 [Google Scholar]
  137. Yolton K, Auinger P, Dietrich KN, Lanphear BP, Hornung R. 137.  2005. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and cognitive abilities among US children and adolescents. Environ. Health Perspect 113:98–103 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114413
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplemental Material

    Subtle shifts in the intellectual abilities of individual children from widespread exposures to toxins can have a big impact on the number of children in a population who are intellectually challenged or gifted.

    Using a nationally representative study of US children, this video illustrates how subtle shifts in ADHD symptoms from childhood lead exposure and prenatal tobacco exposure result in a large increase in the percent of US children who have ADHD.

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error