1932

Abstract

Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in the relation between networks and spatial context. This review examines critically a selection of the literature on how physical space affects the formation of social ties. Different aspects of this question have been a feature in network analysis, neighborhood research, geography, organizational science, architecture and design, and urban planning. Focusing primarily on work at the meso- and microlevels of analysis, we pay special attention to studies examining spatial processes in neighborhood and organizational contexts. We argue that spatial context plays a role in the formation of social ties through at least three mechanisms, spatial propinquity, spatial composition, and spatial configuration; that fully capturing the role of spatial context will require multiple disciplinary perspectives and both qualitative and quantitative research; and that both methodological and conceptual questions central to the role of space in networks remain to be answered. We conclude by identifying major challenges in this work and proposing areas for future research.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022707
2019-07-30
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/45/1/annurev-soc-073018-022707.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022707&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abdulkarim D, Nasar JL. 2014. Are livable elements also restorative?. J. Environ. Psychol. 38:29–38
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Abu-Ghazzeh TM. 1999. Housing layout, social interaction, and the place of contact in Abu-Nuseir, Jordan. J. Environ. Psychol. 19:141–73
    [Google Scholar]
  3. adams J, Faust K, Lovasi GS 2012. Capturing context: integrating spatial and social network analyses. Soc. Netw. 34:11–5
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Al-Homoud M, Tassinary LG. 2004. Social interactions at the neighborhood-level as a function of external space enclosure. J. Archit. Plan. Res. 21:110–23
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Alexander C, Ishikawa S, Siliverstein M, Jacobson M, Fiksdahl-King I, Angel S 1977. Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  6. Allen TJ. 2007. Architecture and communication among product development engineers. Calif. Manag. Rev. 49:223–41
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Allen TJ, Fustfeld AR. 1975. Research laboratory architecture and the structuring of communications. R&D Manag 5:2153–64
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Anderson E. 1978. A Place on the Corner: A Study of Black Street Corner Men Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
  9. Anderson E. 1990. Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
  10. Anderson E. 2011. The Cosmopolitan Canopy: Race and Civility in Everyday Life New York: W.W. Norton
  11. Appel-Meulenbroek R, de Vries B, Weggeman M 2017. Knowledge sharing behavior: the role of spatial design in buildings. Environ. Behav. 49:8874–903
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Athanasiou R, Yoshioka GA. 1973. The spatial character of friendship formation. Environ. Behav. 5:143–65
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Baldassare M. 1978. Human spatial behavior. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 4:29–56
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Blake RR, Rhead CC, Wedge B, Mouton JS 1956. Housing architecture and social interaction. Sociometry 19:2133–39
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Blau PM. 1955. The Dynamics of Bureaucracy: A Study of Interpersonal Relations in Two Government Agencies Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  16. Blau PM. 1977. Inequality and Heterogeneity: A Primitive Theory of Social Structure New York: Free Press
  17. Blau PM, Schwartz JE. 1997. Crosscutting Social Circles: Testing a Macrostructural Theory of Intergroup Relations Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publ.
  18. Bossard JHS. 1932. Residential propinquity as a factor in marriage selection. Am. J. Sociol. 38:2219–24
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Boutellier R, Ullman F, Schreiber J, Naef R 2008. Impact of office layout on communication in a science-driven business. R&D Manag 38:4372–91
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Branas CC, South E, Kondo MC, Hohl BC, Bourgois P et al. 2018. Citywide cluster randomized trial to restore blighted vacant land and its effects on violence, crime, and fear. PNAS 115:122946–51
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Brown BB, Burton JR, Sweaney AL 1998. Neighbors, households, and front porches: new urbanist community tool or mere nostalgia?. Environ. Behav. 30:5579–600
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Brown BB, Werner CM. 1985. Social cohesiveness, territoriality, and holiday decorations: the influence of cul-de-sacs. Environ. Behav. 17:5539–65
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Bruch EE, Newman MEJ. 2018. Aspirational pursuit of mates in online dating markets. Sci. Adv. 4:8eaap9815
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Butts CT. 2003. Network inference, error, and informant (in) accuracy: a Bayesian approach. Soc. Netw. 25:2103–40
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Butts CT, Acton RM. 2011. Spatial modeling of social networks. The Sage Handbook of GIS and Society Research T Nyerges, H Couclelis, R McMaster 222–50 Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Butts CT, Acton RM, Hipp JR, Nagle NN 2012. Geographical variability and network structure. Soc. Netw. 34:182–100
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Butts CT, Carley KM. 2000. Spatial models of large-scale interpersonal networks Work. Pap., Cent. Comput. Anal. Soc. Organ. Syst., Carnegie Mellon Univ Pittsburgh, PA: http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/publications/papers/Carter.Carley.Spatial.pdf
  28. Cabrera JF, Najarian JC. 2015. How the built environment shapes spatial bridging ties and social capital. Environ. Behav. 47:3239–67
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Caldeira GA, Patterson SC. 1987. Political friendship in the legislature. J. Politics 49:4953–75
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Campbell KE. 1990. Networks past: a 1939 Bloomington neighborhood. Soc. Forces 69:1139–55
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Caplow T, Forman R. 1950. Neighborhood interaction in a homogeneous community. Am. Sociol. Rev. 15:3357–66
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Carrasco JA, Hogan B, Wellman B, Miller EJ 2008. Agency in social activity interactions: the role of social networks in time and space. Tijdschr. Econ. Soc. Geogr. 99:5562–83
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Chan JK, Beckman SL, Lawrence PG 2007. Workplace design: a new managerial imperative. Calif. Manag. Rev. 49:26–22
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Chan Tack AM, Small ML 2017. Making friends in violent neighborhoods: strategies among elementary school children. Sociol. Sci. 4:224–48
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Conti N, Doreian P. 2010. Social network engineering and race in a police academy: a longitudinal analysis. Soc. Netw. 32:130–43
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Coradi A, Heinzen M, Boutellier R 2015. A longitudinal study of workspace design for knowledge exploration and exploitation in the research and development process. Creat. Innov. Manag. 24:155–71
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Cozens P, Hillier D. 2008. The shape of things to come: new urbanism, the grid and the cul-de-sac. Int. Plan. Stud. 13:151–73
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Dahlander L, McFarland DA. 2013. Ties that last: tie formation and persistence in research collaborations over time. Adm. Sci. Q. 58:169–110
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Daraganova G, Pattison P, Koskinen J, Mitchell B, Bill A et al. 2012. Networks and geography: modelling community network structures as the outcome of both spatial and network processes. Soc. Netw. 34:16–17
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Davis MC, Leach DJ, Clegg CW 2011. The physical environment of the office: contemporary and emerging issues. International Review of Individual and Organizational Psychology 2011, Vol. 26 GP Hodgkinson, JK Ford 193–237 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Davis TRV. 1984. The influence of the physical environment in offices. Acad. Manag. Rev. 9:2271–83
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Doreian P, Conti N. 2012. Social context, spatial structure and social network structure. Soc. Netw. 34:132–46
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Duneier M. 1992. Slim's Table Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  44. Eagle N, Pentland AS, Lazer D 2009. Inferring friendship network structure by using mobile phone data. PNAS 106:3615274–78
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Ebbesen EB, Kjos GL, Konecni VJ 1976. Spatial ecology: its effects on the choice of friends and enemies. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 12:6505–18
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Eldridge JD, Jones JP III 1991. Warped space: a geography of distance decay. Prof. Geogr. 43:4500–11
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Erbe W. 1966. Accessibility and informal social relationships among American graduate students. Sociometry 29:3251–64
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Erdogan N, Saglamer G, Dökmeci V, Dikbas A 1996. Socioenvironmental determinants of social interactions in a squatter settlement in Istanbul. J. Archit. Plan. Res. 13:4329–36
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Farberman HA, Weinstein EA. 1970. Personalization in lower class consumer interaction. Soc. Probl. 17:4449–57
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Feld SL. 1981. The focused organization of social ties. Am. J. Sociol. 86:51015–35
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Feld SL. 1982. Social structural determinants of similarity among associates. Am. Sociol. Rev. 47:6797–801
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Festinger L, Schachter S, Back KW 1950. Social Pressures in Informal Groups: A Study of Human Factors in Housing Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  53. Fischer CS. 1982. To Dwell Among Friends: Personal Networks in Town and City Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  54. Fischer CS. 1992. America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  55. Frank KA, Muller C, Mueller AS 2013. The embeddedness of adolescent friendship nominations: the formation of social capital in emergent network structures. Am. J. Sociol. 119:1216–53
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Frank KA, Muller C, Schiller KS, Riegle-Crumb C, Mueller AS et al. 2008. The social dynamics of mathematics coursetaking in high school. Am. J. Sociol. 113:61645–96
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Furman FK. 1997. Facing the Mirror: Older Women and Beauty Shop Culture New York: Routledge
  58. Gans HJ. 1961. Planning and social life: friendship and neighbor relations in suburban communities. J. Am. Inst. Plan. 27:2134–40
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Gieryn TF. 2000. A space for place in sociology. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 26:463–96
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Glückler J, Doreian P. 2016. Editorial: social network analysis and economic geography—positional, evolutionary and multi-level approaches. J. Econ. Geogr. 16:61123–34
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Goffman E. 1963. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity New York: Simon & Schuster
  62. Grannis R. 1998. The importance of trivial streets: residential streets and residential segregation. Am. J. Sociol. 103:61530–64
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Grannis R. 2005. T-communities: pedestrian street networks and residential segregation in Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York. City Community 4:3295–321
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Greenbaum SD, Greenbaum PE. 1985. The ecology of social networks in four urban neighborhoods. Soc. Netw. 7:147–76
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Gullahorn JT. 1952. Distance and friendship as factors in the gross interaction matrix. Sociometry 15:1/2123–34
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Habinek J, Martin JK, Zablocki BD 2015. Double-embeddedness: spatial and relational contexts of tie persistence and re-formation. Soc. Netw. 42:July27–41
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Hallinan MT. 1976. Friendship patterns in open and traditional classrooms. Sociol. Educ. 49:4254–65
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Hallinan MT. 1978. The process of friendship formation. Soc. Netw. 1:2193–210
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Hallinan MT. 1979. Structural effects on children's friendships and cliques. Soc. Psychol. Q. 42:143–54
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Hallinan MT, Sørensen AB. 1985. Ability grouping and student friendships. Am. Educ. Res. J. 22:4485–99
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Hallinan MT, Tuma NB. 1978. Classroom effects on change in children's friendships. Sociol. Educ. 51:4270–82
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Hampton KN, Goulet LS, Albanesius G 2015. Change in the social life of urban public spaces: the rise of mobile phones and women, and the decline of aloneness over 30 years. Urban Stud 52:81489–504
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Harding DJ. 2009. Violence, older peers, and the socialization of adolescent boys in disadvantaged neighborhoods. Am. Sociol. Rev. 74:3445–64
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Hatch MJ. 1987. Physical barriers, task characteristics, and interaction activity in research and development firms. Adm. Sci. Q. 32:3387–99
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Hayward DG, Rothenberg M, Beasley RR 1974. Children's play and urban playground environments: a comparison of traditional, contemporary, and adventure playground types. Environ. Behav. 6:2131–68
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Heilweil M. 1973. The influence of dormitory architecture on resident behavior. Environ. Behav. 5:4377–412
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Hillier B, Hanson J. 1984. The Social Logic of Space Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  78. Hillier B, Hanson J, Graham H 1987. Ideas are in things: an application of the space syntax method to discovering house genotypes. Environ. Plan. B 14:4363–85
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Hillier B, Penn A, Hanson J, Grajewski T, Xu J 1993. Natural movement: or, configuration and attraction in urban pedestrian movement. Environ. Plan. B 20:129–66
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Hipp JR, Corcoran J, Wickes R, Li T 2014. Examining the social porosity of environmental features on neighborhood sociability and attachment. PLOS ONE 9:1e84544
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Hipp JR, Faris RW, Boessen A 2012. Measuring ‘neighborhood’: constructing network neighborhoods. Soc. Netw. 34:1128–40
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Jacobs J. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities New York: Vintage
  83. Kabo F. 2017. A model of potential encounters in the workplace: the relationships of homophily, spatial distance, organizational structure, and perceived networks. Environ. Behav. 49:6638–62
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Kabo F, Cotton-Nessler N, Hwang Y, Levenstein MC, Owen-Smith J 2014. Proximity effects on the dynamics and outcomes of scientific collaborations. Res. Policy 43:91469–85
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Kabo F, Hwang Y, Levenstein M, Owen-Smith J 2015. Shared paths to the lab: a sociospatial network analysis of collaboration. Environ. Behav. 47:157–84
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Kahn KB, McDonough EF. 1997. An empirical study of the relationships among co-location, integration, performance, and satisfaction. J. Prod. Innov. Manag. 14:3161–78
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Kalmijn M, Flap H. 2001. Assortative meeting and mating. Soc. Forces 79:41289–312
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Katz P. 1993. The New Urbanism: Toward an Architecture of Community New York: McGraw-Hill Prof.
  89. Kleinbaum AM, Stuart TE, Tushman ML 2008. Communication (and coordination?) in a modern, complex organization Work. Pap., Harv. Bus. Sch Cambridge, MA: http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/communication-and-coordination-in-a-modern-complex-organization
  90. Klinenberg E. 2002. Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  91. Lane J. 2016. The digital street: an ethnographic study of networked street life in Harlem. Am. Behav. Sci. 60:143–58
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Latané B, Liu JH. 1996. The intersubjective geometry of social space. J. Commun. 46:426–34
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Latané B, Liu JH, Nowak A, Bonevento M, Zheng L 1995. Distance matters: physical space and social impact. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 21:8795–805
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Lazarsfeld PF, Merton RK. 1954. Friendship as a social process: a substantive and methodological analysis. Freedom and Control in Modern Society M Berger, T Abel, CH Page 18–66 New York: Van Nostrand
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Lee TR. 1980. The resilience of social networks to changes in mobility and propinquity. Soc. Netw. 2:4423–35
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Lefebvre H. 1991. The Production of Space, transl. D Nicholson-Smith Oxford, UK: Oxford Blackwell
  97. Liben-Nowell D, Novak J, Kumar R, Raghavan P, Tomkins A 2005. Geographic routing in social networks. PNAS 102:3311623–28
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Liu CC, Srivastava SB. 2015. Pulling closer and moving apart: interaction, identity, and influence in the U.S. Senate, 1973 to 2009. Am. Sociol. Rev. 80:1192–217
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Loether HJ. 1960. Propinquity and homogeneity as factors in the choice of best buddies in the Air Force. Pac. Sociol. Rev. 3:118–22
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Logan JR. 2012. Making a place for space: spatial thinking in social science. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 38:507–24
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Lund H. 2003. Testing the claims of new urbanism. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 69:4414–29
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Luo W, MacEachren AM. 2014. Geo-social visual analytics. J. Spatial Inf. Sci. 8:27–66
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Marches JR, Turbeville G. 1953. The effect of residential propinquity on marriage selection. Am. J. Sociol. 58:6592–95
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Marsden PV. 1990. Network diversity, substructures and opportunities for contact. Structures of Power and Constraint: Papers in Honor of Peter M. Blau C Calhoun, MW Meyer, WR Scott 397–410 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  105. May RAB. 2014. Urban Nightlife: Entertaining Race, Class, and Culture in Public Space New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
  106. Mayo JM. 1979. Effects of street forms on suburban neighboring behavior. Environ. Behav. 11:3375–97
    [Google Scholar]
  107. McPherson M, Smith-Lovin L, Cook JM 2001. Birds of a feather: homophily in social networks. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 27:415–44
    [Google Scholar]
  108. McRoberts O. 2003. Streets of Glory Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  109. Mehta V. 2007. Lively streets: determining environmental characteristics to support social behavior. J. Plan. Educ. Res. 27:2165–87
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Mehta V, Bosson JK. 2010. Third places and the social life of streets. Environ. Behav. 42:6779–805
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Mok D, Wellman B. 2007. Did distance matter before the Internet? Interpersonal contact and support in the 1970s. Soc. Netw. 29:3430–61
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Mok D, Wellman B, Carrasco J 2010. Does distance matter in the age of the Internet. Urban Stud 47:132747–83
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Mollenhorst G, Völker B, Flap H 2008a. Social contexts and core discussion networks: using a choice-constraint approach to study similarity in intimate relationships. Soc. Forces 86:3937–65
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Mollenhorst G, Völker B, Flap H 2008b. Social contexts and personal relationships: the effect of meeting opportunities on similarity for relationships of different strength. Soc. Netw. 30:160–68
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Mollenhorst G, Völker B, Flap H 2011. Shared contexts and triadic closure in core discussion networks. Soc. Netw. 33:4292–302
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Moody J. 2001. Race, school integration, and friendship segregation in America. Am. J. Sociol. 107:3679–716
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Morgan SL, Winship C. 2015. Counterfactuals and Causal Inference Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  118. Mouw T, Entwisle B. 2006. Residential segregation and interracial friendship in schools. Am. J. Sociol. 112:2394–441
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Nahemow L, Lawton MP. 1975. Similarity and propinquity in friendship formation. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 32:2205–13
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Newcomb TM. 1961. The Acquaintance Process New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
  121. Oldenburg R. 1989. The Great Good Place: Cafés, Coffee Shops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts, and How They Get You through the Day St. Paul, MN: Paragon House
  122. Park RE, Burgess EW, McKenzie RD 1925. The City Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  123. Pattison P, Robins G. 2002. Neighborhood-based models for social networks. Sociol. Methodol. 32:1301–37
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Peponis J. 1985. The spatial culture of factories. Hum. Relat. 38:4357–90
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Peponis J. 1997. Geometries of architectural description: shape and spatial configuration. Proceedings of the First International Space Syntax Symposium, Vol. 2:34.1–8 London: Univ. Coll.
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Peponis J, Ross C, Rashid M 1997a. The structure of urban space, movement and co-presence: the case of Atlanta. Geoforum 28:3–4341–58
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Peponis J, Wineman J, Rashid M, Kim SH, Bafna S 1997b. On the description of shape and spatial configuration inside buildings: convex partitions and their local properties. Environ. Plan. B 24:5761–81
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Preciado P, Snijders TAB, Burk WJ, Stattin H, Kerr M 2012. Does proximity matter? Distance dependence of adolescent friendships. Soc. Netw. 34:118–31
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Rainie L, Wellman B. 2014. Networked: The New Social Operating System Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
  130. Raman S. 2010. Designing a liveable compact city: physical forms of city and social life in urban neighbourhoods. Built Environ 36:163–80
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Rashid M, Kampschroer K, Wineman J, Zimring C 2006. Spatial layout and face-to-face interaction in offices: a study of the mechanisms of spatial effects on face-to-face interaction. Environ. Plan. B 33:6825–44
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Reagans R. 2011. Close encounters: analyzing how social similarity and propinquity contribute to strong network connections. Organ. Sci. 22:4835–49
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Rivera MT, Soderstrom SB, Uzzi B 2010. Dynamics of dyads in social networks: assortative, relational, and proximity mechanisms. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 36:91–115
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Rosenfeld MJ. 2017. Marriage, choice, and couplehood in the age of the Internet. Sociol. Sci. 4:490–510
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Sacerdote B, Marmaros D. 2006. How do friendships form?. Q. J. Econ 121:179–119
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Sailer K, McCulloh I 2012. Social networks and spatial configuration: how office layouts drive social interaction. Soc. Netw 34:147–58
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Sailer K, Penn A. 2009. Spatiality and transpatiality in workplace environments. Proceedings of the 7th International Space Syntax Symposium D Koch, L Marcus, J Steen 961–11 Stockholm: KTH
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Sampson RJ, McAdam D, MacIndoe H, Weffer-Elizondo S 2005. Civil society reconsidered: the durable nature and community structure of collective action. Am. J. Sociol. 111:3673–714
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Segal MW. 1974. Alphabet and attraction: an unobtrusive measure of the effect of propinquity in a field setting. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 30:5654–57
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Semenza JC, March TL. 2009. An urban community-based intervention to advance social interactions. Environ. Behav. 41:122–42
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Sigelman L, Bledsoe T, Welch W, Combs MW 1996. Making contact? Black-white social interaction in an urban setting. Am. J. Sociol. 101:51306–32
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Simmel G. 1971. On Individuality and Social Forms Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  143. Simmel G. 1997. Simmel on Culture: Selected Writings Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
  144. Small ML. 2004. Villa Victoria: The Transformation of Social Capital in a Boston Barrio Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  145. Small ML. 2009. Unanticipated Gains: Origins of Network Inequality in Everyday Life Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  146. Small ML. 2017. Someone to Talk To Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  147. Small ML, Feldman J. 2012. Ethnographic evidence, heterogeneity, and neighbourhood effects after moving to opportunity. Neighbourhood Effects Research: New Perspectives M van Ham, D Manley, N Bailey, L Simpson, D Maclennan 57–77 New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Snijders TAB, van de Bunt GG, Steglich CEG 2010. Introduction to stochastic actor-based models for network dynamics. Soc. Netw. 32:144–60
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Sommer R. 1966a. Man's proximate environment. J. Soc. Issues 22:459–70
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Sommer R. 1966b. The ecology of privacy. Library Q 36:3234–48
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Spillane JP, Shirrell M, Sweet TM 2017. The elephant in the schoolhouse: the role of propinquity in school staff interactions about teaching. Sociol. Educ. 90:2149–71
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Spiro ES, Almquist ZW, Butts CT 2016. The persistence of division: geography, institutions, and online friendship ties. Socius 2:1–15
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Sudman S. 1988. Experiments in measuring neighbor and relative social networks. Soc. Netw. 10:193–108
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Suttles GD. 1968. The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  155. Takhteyev Y, Gruzd A, Wellman B 2012. Geography of twitter networks. Soc. Netw. 34:173–81
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Tobler WR. 1970. A computer movie simulating urban growth in the Detroit region. Econ. Geogr. 46:Suppl.234–40
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Toker U, Gray DO. 2008. Innovation spaces: workspace planning and innovation in U.S. university research centers. Res. Policy 37:2309–29
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Van Duijn MAJ, Zeggelink EPH, Huisman M, Stokman FN, Wasseur FW 2003. Evolution of sociology freshmen into a friendship network. J. Math. Sociol. 27:2-3153–91
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Van Vliet W. 1983. The study of scientific communities: bringing space back in?. Soc. Sci. Inf. Stud. 3:3135–45
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Verbrugge LM. 1977. The structure of adult friendship choices. Soc. Forces 56:2576–97
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Verbrugge LM. 1979. Multiplexity in adult friendships. Soc. Forces 57:41286–309
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Verbrugge LM. 1983. A research note on adult friendship contact: a dyadic perspective. Soc. Forces 62:178–83
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Wellman B. 1979. The community question: the intimate networks of East Yorkers. Am. J. Sociol. 84:51201–31
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Whyte WH. 1956. The Organization Man New York: Doubleday
  165. Whyte WH. 1980. The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces Washington, DC: Conserv. Found.
  166. Wilkerson A, Carlson NE, Yen IH, Michael YL 2012. Neighborhood physical features and relationships with neighbors: does positive physical environment increase neighborliness?. Environ. Behav. 44:5595–615
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Wineman J, Hwang Y, Kabo F, Owen-Smith J, Davis GF 2014. Spatial layout, social structure, and innovation in organizations. Environ. Plan. B 41:61100–12
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Wineman J, Kabo F, Davis GF 2009. Spatial and social networks in organizational innovation. Environ. Behav. 41:3427–42
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Ye X, Liu X. 2018. Integrating social networks and spatial analyses of the built environment. Environ. Plan. B 45:3395–99
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022707
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error