1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Sociology
  4. Volume 47, 2021
  5. Article

Annual Review of Sociology

Volume 47, 2021

The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy

Abstract

China's one-child policy is one of the largest and most controversial social engineering projects in human history. With the extreme restrictions it imposed on reproduction, the policy has altered China's demographic and social fabric in numerous fundamental ways in its nearly four decades (1979–2015) of existence. Its ramifications reach far beyond China's national borders and the present generation. This review examines the policy's social consequences through its two most commonly invoked demographic concerns: elevated sex ratio and rapid population aging. We place these demographic concerns within three broad social and political contexts of the policy—gender, family, and the state—to examine its social consequences. We also discuss the sociological consequences of the policy, by reflecting on the roles of science and social scientists in public policy making.

Keyword(s): China, family, gender, institutionalization, one-child policy, population
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-032839
2021-07-31
2024-04-19
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/47/1/annurev-soc-090220-032839.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-032839&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Arnold F, Liu Z. 1986. Sex preference, fertility, and family planning in China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 12:2221–46
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Attané I. 2013. The Demographic Masculinization of China: Hoping for a Son New York: Springer
  3. Attané I, Gu B. 2014. Analysing China's Population: Social Change in a New Demographic Era New York: Springer
  4. Banister J. 1987. China's Changing Population Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  5. Becker S. 2013. Has the world really survived the population bomb? (Commentary on “How the world survived the population bomb: lessons from 50 years of extraordinary demographic history”). Demography 50:62173–81
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Blake J. 1981. The only child in America: prejudice versus performance. Popul. Dev. Rev. 7:143–54
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bloom DE, Williamson JG. 1998. Demographic transitions and economic miracles in emerging Asia. World Bank Econ. Rev. 12:3419–55
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Cai Y. 2013. China's new demographic reality: learning from the 2010 census. Popul. Dev. Rev. 39:3371–96
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Cai Y 2014. China's demographic challenges: gender imbalance. China's Challenges J deLisle, A Goldstein 60–82 Philadelphia: Univ. Pa. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Cai Y. 2017. Missing girls or hidden girls? A comment on Shi and Kennedy's “Delayed registration and identifying the ‘missing girls’ in China. .” China Q 231:797–803
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Cai Y, Cheng Y. 2014. Pension reform in China: challenges and opportunities. J. Econ. Surv. 28:4636–51
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Cai Y, Lavely W. 2003. China's missing girls: numerical estimates and effects on population growth. China Rev 3:213–29
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Cameron L, Erkal N, Gangadharan L, Meng X. 2013. Little emperors: behavioral impacts of China's one-child policy. Science 339:953–57
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party 1980. Open letter to members of the Communist Party and the Communist Youth League. People's Daily Sept. 25, 1980.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Chen F, Liu G, Mair CA. 2011. Intergenerational ties in context: grandparents caring for grandchildren in China. Soc. Forces 90:2571–94
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Chen J, Xie Z, Liu H. 2007. Son preference, use of maternal health care, and infant mortality in rural China, 1989–2000. Popul. Stud. 61:2161–83
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Chen M. 1979. China sets ever more stringent targets for fertility reduction. Popul. Dev. Rev. 5:4723–30
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Chen W-C. 2015. Academic performance of only children who monopolize parental resources: the case of Taiwan. Sociol. Perspect. 58:4609–26
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Chen Y, Ebenstein A, Edlund L, Li H. 2015. Girl adoption in China—a less-known side of son preference. Popul. Stud. 69:2161–78
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Chu J. 2001. Prenatal sex determination and sex-selective abortion in rural central China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 27:2259–81
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Coale AJ, Banister J. 1994. Five decades of missing females in China. Demography 31:459–79
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Croll E, Davin D, Kane P 1985. China's One-Child Family Policy New York: St. Martin's
  23. Davis DS. 2014. Demographic challenges for a rising China. Daedalus 143:226–38
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Davis DS, Friedman SL. 2014. Wives, Husbands, and Lovers: Marriage and Sexuality in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Urban China Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  25. Davis DS, Sensenbrenner JS 2000. Commercializing childhood: parental purchases for Shanghai's only child. The Consumer Revolution In Urban China DS Davis 54–79 Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Deutsch FM. 2006. Filial piety, patrilineality, and China's one-child policy. J. Fam. Issues 27:3366–89
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Doherty JP, Norton EC, Veney JE. 2001. China's one-child policy: the economic choices and consequences faced by pregnant women. Soc. Sci. Med. 52:5745–61
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Dowling M 2017. Globalisation and international adoption from China. Handbook on the Family and Marriage in China X Zang, L Zhao 305–20 Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Downey DB. 1995. When bigger is not better: family size, parental resources, and children's educational performance. Am. Sociol. Rev. 60:5746–61
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Ebenstein A. 2010. The ‘missing girls’ of China and the unintended consequences of the one child policy. J. Hum. Resour. 45:187–115
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Ehrlich PR. 1968. The Population Bomb New York: Ballantine
  32. Fan CC. 2004. The state, the migrant labor regime, and maiden workers in China. Political Geogr 23:3283–305
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Fang C. 2020. Dynamics of Chinese Shidu parents’ vulnerability in old age – a qualitative study. J. Popul. Ageing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12062-020-09293-4
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  34. Feeney G, Wang F. 1993. Parity progression and birth intervals in China: the influence of policy in hastening fertility decline. Popul. Dev. Rev. 19:161–101
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Feeney G, Yuan J. 1994. Below replacement fertility in China? A close look at recent evidence. Popul. Stud. 48:3381–94
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Feng X-T, Poston DL Jr., Wang X-T. 2014. China's one-child policy and the changing family. J. Comp. Fam. Stud. 45:117–29
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Fincher LH. 2016. Leftover Women: The Resurgence of Gender Inequality in China London: Zed
  38. Fong M. 2016. One Child: The Story of China's Most Radical Experiment Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
  39. Fong VL. 2004. Only Hope: Coming of Age Under China's One-Child Policy Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  40. Francis D 2009. The real inconvenient truth. Financial Post, Dec. 8. http://www.financialpost.com/story.html?id=2314438
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Gietel-Basten S, Han X, Cheng Y 2019. Assessing the impact of the “one-child policy” in China: a synthetic control approach. PLOS ONE 14:11e0220170
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Greenhalgh S. 2005. Missile science, population science: the origins of China's one-child policy. China Q 182:253–76
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Greenhalgh S. 2008. Just One Child: Science and Policy in Deng's China Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  44. Greenhalgh S. 2013. Patriarchal demographics? China's sex ratio reconsidered. Popul. Dev. Rev. 38:130–49
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Greenhalgh S, Li J. 1995. Engendering reproductive policy and practice in peasant China: for a feminist demography of reproduction. Signs 20:3601–41
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Greenhalgh S, Winckler E. 2005. Governing China's Population: From Leninist to Neoliberal Biopolitics Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
  47. Gu B, Roy K. 1995. Sex ratio at birth in China, with reference to other areas in East Asia: what we know. Asia-Pac. . Popul. J. 10:317–42
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Gu B, Wang F 2008. 八百万人的实践 [The Practices of Eight Million People: Reports from Experimental Areas of Two-Child Policy] Beijing: 中国社科文献出版社 [Soc. Sci. Acad.]
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Gu B, Wang F, Guo Z, Zhang E. 2007. China's local and national fertility policies at the end of the twentieth century. Popul. Dev. Rev. 33:1129–47
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Guilmoto CZ, Ren Q. 2011. Socio-economic differentials in birth masculinity in China. Dev. Change 42:51269–96
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Guo G, VanWey LK. 1999. Sibship size and intellectual development: Is the relationship causal?. Am. Sociol. Rev. 64:2169–87
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Guo Z, Wang F, Cai Y. 2017. China's Low Birth Rate and the Development of Population London: Routledge
  53. Hardee K, Xie Z, Gu B. 2004. Family planning and women's lives in rural China. Int. Fam. Plan. Perspect. 30:268–76
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Huang Y, Yang DL. 2002. Bureaucratic capacity and state-society relations in China. J. Chinese Political Sci. 7:1–219–46
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Hudson VM, den Boer AM. 2005. Bare Branches: The Security Implications of Asia's Surplus Male Population Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
  56. Hull TH. 1990. Recent trends in sex ratios at birth in China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 16:163–83
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Hvistendahl M. 2010. Has China outgrown the one-child policy?. Science 329:1458–61
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Hvistendahl M. 2011. Unnatural Selection: Choosing Boys Over Girls, and the Consequences of a World Full of Men New York: Public Aff.
  59. Hvistendahl M. 2013. Making a selfish generation by fiat. Science 339:6116131
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Ji Y. 2015. Between tradition and modernity: “leftover” women in Shanghai. J. Marriage Fam. 77:51057–73
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Jiang J. 2020. The eyes and ears in the authoritarian regime: the mass reporting. J. Contemp. Asia. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2020.1813790
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  62. Jiang Q, Li Y, Sanchez-Barricarte J. 2014. The risk of mothers losing an only child in China. J. Biosoc. Sci. 46:4531–45
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Johansson S, Nygren O. 1991. The missing girls of China: a new demographic account. Popul. Dev. Rev. 17:35–51
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Johnson K, Banghan H, Liyao W. 1998. Infant abandonment and adoption in China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 24:3469–510
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Johnson KA. 2004. Wanting a Daughter, Needing a Son: Abandonment, Adoption, and Orphanage Care in China St. Paul, MN: Yeong & Yeong
  66. Johnson KA. 2016. China's Hidden Children: Abandonment, Adoption, and the Human Costs of the One-Child Policy Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  67. Kaufman J. 1993. The cost of IUD failure in China. Stud. Fam. Plan. 24:3194–96
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Klasen S. 2008. Hepatitis B and missing women: the rise and decline of a finding. Vox EU Aug. 30. https://voxeu.org/article/journalism-and-science-hepatitis-b-and-missing-women
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Lam D. 2011. How the world survived the population bomb: lessons from 50 years of extraordinary demographic history. Demography 48:41231–62
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Lavely W. 2001. First impressions from the 2000 census of China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 27:4755–69
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Lavely W, Freedman R. 1990. The origins of the Chinese fertility decline. Demography 27:3357–67
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Lee J, Wang F. 1999. One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  73. Lei L. 2013. Sons, daughters, and intergenerational support in China. Chinese Sociol. Rev. 45:326–52
     [Google Scholar]
  74. Li H, Yi J, Zhang J 2011. Estimating the effect of the one-child policy on the sex ratio imbalance in China: identification based on the difference-in-differences. Demography 48:41535–57
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Li Z, Wu X. 2018. Social policy and political trust: evidence from the new rural pension scheme in China. China Q 235:644–68
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Liang Z. 2014. 中国计划生育史论 [On the History of China's Birth Planning]. Beijing: 中国发展出版社 [China Press Dev.]
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Liu H, Han X, Xiao Q, Li S, Feldman MW 2015. Family structure and quality of life of elders in rural China: the role of the new rural social pension. J. Aging Soc. Policy 27:2123–38
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Liu J, Larsen U, Wyshak G. 2004. Factors affecting adoption in China, 1950–87. Popul. Stud. 58:121–36
     [Google Scholar]
  79. Logan JR, Bian F, Bian Y. 1998. Tradition and change in the urban Chinese family: the case of living arrangements. Soc. Forces 76:3851–82
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Louie A. 2015. How Chinese Are You? Adopted Chinese Youth and Their Families Negotiate Identity and Culture New York: NYU Press
  81. Lu Y, Treiman DJ. 2008. The effect of sibship size on educational attainment in China: period variations. Am. Sociol. Rev. 73:5813–34
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Ma L, Rizzi E, Turunen J. 2019. Childlessness, sex composition of children, and divorce risks in China. Demogr. Res. 41:753–79
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Randers J, Behrens WW III 1972. The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind New York: Universe
  84. Meng M, Hunt K. 2013. New Chinese law: visit your parents. CNN July 2. https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/02/world/asia/china-elderly-law/index.html
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Merli MG, Qian Z, Smith HL. 2004. Adaptation of a political bureaucracy to economic and institutional change under socialism: the Chinese state family planning system. Politics Soc 32:2231–56
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Merli MG, Smith HL. 2002. Has the Chinese family planning policy been successful in changing fertility preferences?. Demography 39:3557–72
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Milwertz CN. 1997. Accepting Population Control: Urban Chinese Women and the One-Child Family Policy London: Curzon:
  88. Murphy R, Tao R, Lu X. 2011. Son preference in rural China: patrilineal families and socioeconomic change. Popul. Dev. Rev. 37:4665–90
     [Google Scholar]
  89. NBS (Natl. Bur. Stat. China) 2020. China Statistical Yearbook 2019 Beijing: China Stat.
  90. NBS/UNFPA/UNICEF (Natl. Bur. Stat. China/U. N. Popul. Fund/U. N. Child. Fund) 2015. Women who lost their only child in China and their family status: facts and figures 2015 Rep., U. N. Popul. Fund New York: https://china.unfpa.org/en/publications/women-who-lost-their-only-child-china-and-their-family-status-facts-and-figures-2015
  91. Nie Y, Wyman RJ. 2005. The one-child policy in Shanghai: acceptance and internalization. Popul. Dev. Rev. 31:2313–36
     [Google Scholar]
  92. NPDSRT (Natl. Popul. Dev. Strateg. Res. Team) 2007. National population development strategy research report Rep., Natl. Popul. Dev. Strateg. Res. Team Beijing: http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2007-01/11/content_493677.htm
  93. NPFPC (Natl. Popul. Fam. Plan. Comm.) 2009. 人口和计划生育队伍职业化建设“十一五”和2020年中长期规划 [The “eleventh five-year plan” and mid- and long-term plan for the professionalization of population and family planning workers] Not., Popul. Family Plan. Comm Beijing: http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2009-02/06/content_1223552.htm
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Otis EM. 2011. Markets and Bodies: Women, Service Work, and the Making of Inequality in China Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  95. Pearson V. 1995. Goods on which one loses: women and mental health in China. Soc. Sci. Med. 41:81159–73
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Peng X. 1991. Demographic Transition in China: Fertility Trends Since the 1950s Oxford, UK:: Clarendon
  97. Peng X. 2011. China's demographic history and future challenges. Science 29:581–87
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Peng X, Hu Z. 2015. 当代中国家庭变迁与家庭政策重构 [Family changes and family policy in China. ]. 中国社会科学 [Soc. Sci. China] 2015:12113–32
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Poston DL Jr., Falbo T. 1990. Academic performance and personality traits of Chinese children: “onlies” versus others. Am. J. Sociol. 96:2433–51
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Poston DL Jr., Yu M-Y. 1985. Quality of life, intellectual development and behavioral characteristics of single children in China: evidence from a 1980 survey in Changsha, Hunan Province. J. Biosoc. Sci. 17:2127–36
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Qian Y, Qian Z. 2014. The gender divide in urban China: singlehood and assortative mating by age and education. Demogr. Res. 31:1337–64
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Qian Z. 1997. Progression to second birth in China: a study of four rural counties. Popul. Stud. 51:2221–28
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Riley NE. 1999. Challenging demography: contributions from feminist theory. Sociol. Forum. 14:3369–97
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Riskin C, Renwei Z, Shih L. 2000. China's Retreat from Equality: Income Distribution and Economic Transition London: Routledge. , 1st ed..
  105. Schacht R, Tharp D, Smith KR. 2016. Marriage markets and male mating effort: violence and crime are elevated where men are rare. Hum. Nat. 27:4489–500
     [Google Scholar]
  106. Scharping T. 2003. Birth Control in China, 1949–2000: Population Policy and Demographic Development London: Routledge
  107. Scharping T. 2019. Abolishing the one-child policy: stages, issues, and the political process. J. Contemp. China 28:327–47
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Scott JC. 1998. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  109. Settles BH, Sheng X, Zang Y, Zhao J. 2013. The one-child policy and its impact on Chinese families. International Handbook of Chinese Families C Kwok-bun 627–46 New York: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Shen K, Wang F, Cai Y. 2018. A benevolent state against an unjust society? Inequalities in public transfers in China. Chinese Sociol. Rev. 50:2137–62
     [Google Scholar]
  111. Shen K, Wang F, Cai Y. 2020. Government policy and global fertility change: a reappraisal. Asian Popul. Stud. 16:2145–66
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Shi L. 2017a. Choosing Daughters: Family Change in Rural China Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  113. Shi L. 2017b. The new rich and their unplanned births: stratified reproduction under China's birth-planning policy. Med. Anthropol. Q. 31:4537–54
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Shi Y, Kennedy JJ. 2016. Delayed registration and identifying the “missing girls” in China. China Q 228:1018–38
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Short SE, Zhai F. 1998. Looking locally at China's one-child policy. Stud. Fam. Plan. 29:4373–87
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Song J, Tuan C-H, Yu J-Y. 1985. Population Control in China: Theory and Applications New York: Praeger
  117. Song S, Wang W. 2019. Testing the only-child advantage in cognitive development in the context of China's one-child policy. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 38:6841–67
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Song Y. 2014. Losing an only child: the one-child policy and elderly care in China. Reprod. Health Matters. 22:43113–24
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Tang B. 2020. Grid governance in China's urban middle-class neighbourhoods. China Q 241:43–61
     [Google Scholar]
  120. The Economist 2014. Curbing climate change – the deepest cuts. The Economist, Sep. 20. https://www.economist.com/briefing/2014/09/20/the-deepest-cuts
  121. Tien HY. 1980. Wan, Xi, Shao: how China meets its population problem. Int. Fam. Plan. Perspect. 6:265–70
     [Google Scholar]
  122. To S. 2015. China's Leftover Women: Late Marriage Among Professional Women and Its Consequences London: Routledge
  123. Trent K, South SJ. 2011. Too many men? Sex ratios and women's partnering behavior in China. Soc. Forces 90:1247–67
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Tsui M, Rich L. 2002. The only child and educational opportunity for girls in urban China. Gender Soc 16:174–92
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Vortherms SA. 2019. China's missing children: political barriers to citizenship through the household registration system. China Q 238:309–30
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Wang F. 2011. The future of a demographic overachiever: long-term implications of the demographic transition in China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 37:Suppl173–90
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Wang F 2015. China's long road toward recognition of below-replacement fertility. Low and Lower Fertility R Rindfuss, MK Choe 15–31 New York: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Wang F, Cai Y, Gu B. 2013. Population, policy, and politics: How will history judge China's one-child policy?. Popul. Dev. Rev. 38:Suppl. S1115–29
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Wang F, Cai Y, Shen K, Gietel-Basten S. 2018. Is demography just a numerical exercise? Numbers, politics, and legacies of China's one-child policy. Demography 55:2693–719
     [Google Scholar]
  130. Wang F, Gu B, Cai Y. 2016. The end of China's one-child policy. Stud. Fam. Plan. 47:183–86
     [Google Scholar]
  131. Wang F, Mason A. 2007. Demographic dividend and prospects for economic development in China. United Nations Expert Group Meeting on Social and Economic Implications of Changing Population Age Structures141–54 New York: U. N.
     [Google Scholar]
  132. Wang F, Shen K, Cai Y. 2019. Expansion of public transfers in China: Who are the beneficiaries?. J. Econ. Ageing 14:100194
     [Google Scholar]
  133. Wang G. 2013. 独生子女死亡总量及变化趋势研究 [Size and trend of one-child death. ]. 中国人口科学 [China Popul. Sci.] 2013:157–65
     [Google Scholar]
  134. Wang G. 2016. 中国失独妇女总量, 结构及变动趋势计算机仿真研究 [Bereaved women in China, estimate and trend based on simulation. ]. 人口与经济 [Popul. Econ.] 2016 51–11
     [Google Scholar]
  135. Wang LK. 2016. Outsourced Children: Orphanage Care and Adoption in Globalizing China Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
  136. Wang T. 2020. Fewer women doing more crime: How has the one-child policy affected female crime in China?. Sociol. Q. 61:187–106
     [Google Scholar]
  137. Wei Y, Jiang Q, Gietel-Basten S. 2016. The well-being of bereaved parents in an only-child society. Death Stud 40:122–31
     [Google Scholar]
  138. White T. 2007. China's Longest Campaign: Birth Planning in the People's Republic, 1949–2005 Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
  139. White T. 2011. China's one-child policy. Oxford Bibliographies: Political Science LS Maisel Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0005.xml
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Whyte MK. 2004. Filial obligations in Chinese families: paradoxes of modernization. Filial Piety: Practice and Discourse in Contemporary East Asia C Ikels 106–27 Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  141. Whyte MK 2019. China's one child policy. Oxford Bibliographies: Childhood Studies H Montgomery Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791231/obo-9780199791231-0221.xml
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Whyte MK, Parish W. 1984. Urban Life in Contemporary China Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  143. Whyte MK, Wang F, Cai Y. 2015. Challenging myths about China's one-child policy. China J 74:144–59
     [Google Scholar]
  144. Wu Y. 2013. 难以公开的社会抚养费 [Undisclosed social compensation fees. ]. New York Times Chinese Sept. 22. https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20130922/cc22birthcontrol/
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Xie Y, Zhu H. 2009. Do sons or daughters give more money to parents in urban China?. J. Marriage Fam. 71:1174–86
     [Google Scholar]
  146. Yang Z, Li Q. 2016. 中国计划生育政策直接成本估算: 1997–2012年 [The direct cost of China's birth planning policy: 1997–2012]. 财经问题研究 [Res. Financ. Econ. Issues] 388:364–71
     [Google Scholar]
  147. Yeung W-JJ, Hu S. 2013. Coming of age in times of change: the transition to adulthood in China. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 646:149–71
     [Google Scholar]
  148. Yu J, Xie Y. 2015. Cohabitation in China: trends and determinants. Popul. Dev. Rev. 41:4607–28
     [Google Scholar]
  149. Zeng Y, Tu P, Gu B, Xu Y, Li B, Li Y 1993. Causes and implications of the recent increase in the reported sex ratio at birth in China. Popul. Dev. Rev. 19:2283–302
     [Google Scholar]
  150. Zhai F, Gao Q. 2010. Center-based care in the context of one-child policy in China: Do child gender and siblings matter?. Popul. Res. Policy Rev. 29:5745–74
     [Google Scholar]
  151. Zhai Z, Zhang X, Jin Y 2014. 立即全面放开二胎政策的人口学后果分析 [Demographic consequences of an immediate transition to a universal two-child policy. ]. 人口研究 [Popul. Res.] 38:23–17
     [Google Scholar]
  152. Zhan HJ, Feng Z, Chen Z, Feng X 2011. The role of the family in institutional long-term care: cultural management of filial piety in China. Int. J. Soc. Welfare 20:S1S121–34
     [Google Scholar]
  153. Zhang G, Zhao Z. 2006. Reexamining China's fertility puzzle: data collection and quality over the last two decades. Popul. Dev. Rev. 32:2293–321
     [Google Scholar]
  154. Zhang H. 2006. Family care or residential care? The moral and practical dilemmas facing the elderly in urban China. Asian Anthropol 5:57–83
     [Google Scholar]
  155. Zhang J, Sun L, Liu Y, Zhang J. 2014. The change in suicide rates between 2002 and 2011 in China. Suicide Life Threat. Behav. 44:5560–68
     [Google Scholar]
  156. Zhang W. 2006. Who adopts girls and why? Domestic adoption of female children in contemporary rural China. China J 56:63–82
     [Google Scholar]
  157. Zhang W. 2009.. “ A married out daughter is like spilt water”? Women's increasing contacts and enhanced ties with their natal families in post-reform rural North China. Mod. China 35:3256–83
     [Google Scholar]
  158. Zhao Z, Guo F. 2007. Transition and Challenge: China's Population at the Beginning of the 21st Century Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  159. Zheng Y, Lawson TR. 2015. Identity reconstruction as shiduers: narratives from Chinese older adults who lost their only child. Int. J. Soc. Welf. 24:4399–406
     [Google Scholar]
  160. Zhou X. 2017. 中国国家治理的制度逻辑 [The Institutional Logic of Governance in China: An Organizational Approach] Beijing: 北京: 生活 · 读书 · 新知三联书店 [SDX Joint Publ. Co.]
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-032839
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error