1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology
  4. Volume 2, 2020
  5. Article

Annual Review of Developmental Psychology

Volume 2, 2020

The Effects of Cannabis Use on the Development of Adolescents and Young Adults

Abstract

This review summarizes evidence on the effects of cannabis use on the development of adolescents and young adults. It draws on epidemiological studies, neuroimaging studies, case-control studies, and twin and Mendelian randomization studies. The acute risks include psychiatric symptoms associated with the use of high THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) products and motor vehicle accidents. Daily cannabis use during adolescence is associated with cannabis dependence and poor cognitive function, which may affect educational attainment and occupational choice. Daily use of highly potent cannabis is associated with more severe psychological symptoms, such as psychoses, mania, and suicidality. There are more mixed findings on depressive symptoms, anxiety, and violence and debates about the interpretation of these associations. Legalization of adult cannabis use may increase cannabis use and dependence among adolescents and young adults. The regulation of cannabis after legalization needs to minimize adolescent uptake and cannabis-related adverse developmental outcomes.

Keyword(s): adolescent cannabis use, cannabis, cannabis dependence, child development, cognition, cognitive impairment, depression, educational outcomes, mental disorders, psychosis
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904
2020-12-15
2024-04-16
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/devpsych/2/1/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. ACMD (Advis. Counc. Misuse Drugs) 2008. Cannabis: classification and public health Corp. Rep., Home Office London:
  2. Agrawal A, Nurnberger JI Jr, Lynskey MT 2011. Cannabis involvement in individuals with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 185:459–61
     [Google Scholar]
  3. AIHW (Aust. Inst. Health Welfare) 2017. Data tables: Chapter 5 Illicit use of drugs. National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2016: Detailed Findings Rep., AIHW Canberra: Aust. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/ndshs-2016-detailed/data
    [Google Scholar]
  4. AIHW (Aust. Inst. Health Welfare) 2019. Alcohol and other drug treatment services in Australia 2017–18: key findings Rep., AIHW Canberra: Aust .
  5. Ajdacic-Gross V, Lauber C, Warnke I, Haker H, Murray RM, Rossler W 2007. Changing incidence of psychotic disorders among the young in Zurich. Schizophr. Res. 95:9–18
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Andreasson S, Allebeck P, Engstrom A, Rydberg U 1987. Cannabis and schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 2:1483–86
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Anthony J. 2006. The epidemiology of cannabis dependence. Cannabis Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences and Treatment RA Roffman, RS Stephens 58–105 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Anthony JC, Warner LA, Kessler RC 1994. Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances, and inhalants: basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2:244–68
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Arendt M, Munk-Jorgensen P, Sher L, Jensen SO 2013. Mortality following treatment for cannabis use disorders: predictors and causes. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 44:400–6
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Poulton R, Murray R, Caspi A, Moffitt TE 2002. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ 325:1212–13
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Asbridge M, Hayden JA, Cartwright JL 2012. Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis. BMJ 344:e536
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Aydelotte JD, Brown LH, Luftman KM, Mardock AL, Teixeira PGR et al. 2017. Crash fatality rates after recreational marijuana legalization in Washington and Colorado. Am. J. Public Health 107:1329–31
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Babor T, Caetano R, Casswell S, Edwards G, Giesbrecht N et al. 2010. Alcohol: No Ordinary Commodity: Research and Public Policy Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  14. Bally N, Zullino D, Aubry J-M 2014. Cannabis use and first manic episode. J. Affect. Disord. 165:103–8
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Batalla A, Bhattacharyya S, Yucel M, Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA et al. 2013. Structural and functional imaging studies in chronic cannabis users: a systematic review of adolescent and adult findings. PLOS ONE 8:e55821
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Beautrais AL, Joyce PR, Mulder RT 1999. Cannabis abuse and serious suicide attempts. Addiction 94:1155–64
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Bergen SE, Gardner CO, Aggen SH, Kendler KS 2008. Socioeconomic status and social support following illicit drug use: causal pathways or common liability. ? Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 11:266–74
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Blest-Hopley G, Giampietro V, Bhattacharyya S 2018. Residual effects of cannabis use in adolescent and adult brains—a meta-analysis of fMRI studies. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 88:26–41
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Bloomfield MAP, Hindocha C, Green SF, Wall MB, Lees R et al. 2019. The neuropsychopharmacology of cannabis: a review of human imaging studies. Pharmacol. Ther. 195:132–61
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Borges G, Bagge CL, Orozco R 2016. A literature review and meta-analyses of cannabis use and suicidality. J. Affect. Disord. 195:63–74
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Boydell J, van Os J, Caspi A, Kennedy N, Giouroukou E et al. 2006. Trends in cannabis use prior to first presentation with schizophrenia, in South-East London between 1965 and 1999. Psychol. Med. 36:1441–46
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Broyd SJ, van Hell HH, Beale C, Yücel M, Solowij N 2016. Acute and chronic effects of cannabinoids on human cognition—a systematic review. Biol. Psychiatry 79:557–67
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Budney AJ, Hughes JR. 2006. The cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 19:233–38
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Budney AJ, Sofis MJ, Borodovsky JT 2019. An update on cannabis use disorder with comment on the impact of policy related to therapeutic and recreational cannabis use. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 269:73–86
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Calabria B, Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M 2010. Does cannabis use increase the risk of death? Systematic review of epidemiological evidence on adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Rev 29:318–30
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Caulkins JP. 2017. Recognizing and regulating cannabis as a temptation good. Int. J. Drug Policy 42:50–56
     [Google Scholar]
  27. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2019. Annual surveillance report of drug-related risks and outcomes—United States, 2019 US Surveill. Spec. Rep. CDC Atlanta, GA:
  28. Chan GCK, Hall W, Freeman TP, Ferris J, Kelly AB, Winstock A 2017. User characteristics and effect profile of Butane Hash Oil: an extremely high-potency cannabis concentrate. Drug Alcohol Depend 178:32–38
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Chye Y, Christensen E, Yucel M 2019. Cannabis use in adolescence: a review of neuroimaging findings. J. Dual Diagn. 16:83–105
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Coffey C, Patton GC. 2016. Cannabis use in adolescence and young adulthood: a review of findings from the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort Study. Can. J. Psychiatry 61:318–27
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Danovitch I, Gorelick DA. 2012. State of the art treatments for cannabis dependence. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 35:309–26
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Degenhardt L, Dierker L, Chiu WT, Medina-Mora ME, Neumark Y et al. 2010. Evaluating the drug use “gateway” theory using cross-national data: consistency and associations of the order of initiation of drug use among participants in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Drug Alcohol Depend 108:84–97
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Degenhardt L, Hall WD, Lynskey M 2003. Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend 71:37–48
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Degenhardt L, Hall WD, Lynskey M, Coffey C, Patton G 2012. The association between cannabis use and depression: a review of the evidence. Marijuana and Madness D Castle, R Murray, D D'Souza 114–28 New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Dellazizzo L, Potvin S, Beaudoin M, Luigi M, Dou BY et al. 2019. Cannabis use and violence in patients with severe mental illnesses: a meta-analytical investigation. Psychiatry Res 274:42–48
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Dilley JA, Richardson SM, Kilmer B, Pacula RL, Segawa MB, Cerda M 2019. Prevalence of cannabis use in youths after legalization in Washington State. JAMA Pediatr 173:192–93
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Dines AM, Wood DM, Galicia M, Yates CM, Heyerdahl F et al. 2015. Presentations to the emergency department following cannabis use—a multi-centre case series from ten European countries. J. Med. Toxicol. 11:415–21
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Ellickson P, Bui K, Bell R, McGuigan KA 1998. Does early drug use increase the risk of dropping out of high school. ? J. Drug Issues 28:357–80
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Elvik R. 2013. Risk of road accident associated with the use of drugs: a systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence from epidemiological studies. Accid. Anal. Prev. 60:254–67
     [Google Scholar]
  40. EMCDDA (Eur. Monit. Cent. Drugs Drug Addict.) 2018a. Cannabis legislation in Europe: an overview Rep., Publ. Off. Eur. Union Luxembourg:
  41. EMCDDA (Eur. Monit. Cent. Drugs Drug Addict.) 2018b. European Drug Report 2018: trends and developments Rep., Publ. Off. Eur. Union Luxembourg:
  42. EMCDDA (Eur. Monit. Cent. Drugs Drug Addict.) 2019a. Developments in the European cannabis market Rep., Publ. Off. Eur. Union Luxembourg:
  43. EMCDDA (Eur. Monit. Cent. Drugs Drug Addict.) 2019b. Statistical Bulletin 2019—treatment demand Rep., Publ. Off. Eur. Union Luxembourg:
  44. Esmaeelzadeh S, Moraros J, Thorpe L, Bird Y 2018. Examining the association and directionality between mental health disorders and substance use among adolescents and young adults in the U.S. and Canada—a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Clin. Med. 7:543
     [Google Scholar]
  45. ESPAD Group (Eur. Sch. Surv. Proj. Alcohol Other Drugs Group) 2016. ESPAD report 2015: results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs Rep., Publ. Off. Eur. Union Luxembourg:
  46. Fergusson D, Boden J. 2008. Cannabis use and later life outcomes. Addiction 103:969–76
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Fergusson D, Boden J, Horwood L 2006. Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis. Addiction 101:556–69
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Fergusson D, Boden J, Horwood L 2008. The developmental antecedents of illicit drug use: evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug Alcohol Depend 96:165–77
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Fergusson D, Horwood L. 1997. Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in young adults. Addiction 92:279–96
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Fergusson D, Horwood L, Swain-Campbell N 2003. Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychol. Med. 33:15–21
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Fischer B, Russell C, Sabioni P, van den Brink W, Le Foll B et al. 2017. Lower-risk cannabis use guidelines: a comprehensive update of evidence and recommendations. Am. J. Public Health 107:e1–12
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Florez-Salamanca L, Secades-Villa R, Budney AJ, Garcia-Rodriguez O, Wang S, Blanco C 2013. Probability and predictors of cannabis use disorders relapse: results of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug Alcohol Depend 132:127–33
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Freeman TP, van der Pol P, Kuijpers W, Wisselink J, Das RK et al. 2018. Changes in cannabis potency and first-time admissions to drug treatment: a 16-year study in the Netherlands. Psychol. Med. 48:2346–52
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Friemel CM. 2019. Psychosocial consequences. Cannabis: Potential and Risks E Hoch, CM Friemel, M Schneider 129–48 Heidelberg, Ger: Springer Nature
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Gage SH, Jones HJ, Burgess S, Bowden J, Davey Smith G et al. 2017. Assessing causality in associations between cannabis use and schizophrenia risk: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Psychol. Med. 47:971–80
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Gates PJ, Sabioni P, Copeland J, Le Foll B, Gowing L 2016. Psychosocial interventions for cannabis use disorder. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 5:CD005336
     [Google Scholar]
  57. GBD 2017 Dis. Inj. Incid. Preval. Collab 2018. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 354 diseases and injuries for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 392:1789–858 Erratum. 2019. Lancet 393:e44
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Gibbs M, Winsper C, Marwaha S, Gilbert E, Broome M, Singh SP 2015. Cannabis use and mania symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 171:39–47
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Gobbi G, Atkin T, Zytynski T, Wang S, Askari S et al. 2019. Association of cannabis use in adolescence and risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidality in young adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 76:426–34
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Grant JD, Lynskey MT, Scherrer JF, Agrawal A, Heath AC, Bucholz KK 2010. A cotwin-control analysis of drug use and abuse/dependence risk associated with early-onset cannabis use. Addict. Behav. 35:35–41
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Grant JD, Scherrer JF, Lynskey MT, Agrawal A, Duncan AE et al. 2012. Associations of alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, and drug use/dependence with educational attainment: evidence from cotwin-control analyses. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 36:1412–20
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Hall WD. 2015. What has research over the past two decades revealed about the adverse health effects of recreational cannabis use. ? Addiction 110:19–35
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Hall WD, Fischer B. 2010. Harm reduction policies for cannabis. Harm Reduction: Evidence, Impacts and Challenges T Rhodes, D Hedrich 235–51 Lisbon, Port: Eur. Monit. Cent. Drugs Drug Addict.
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Hall WD, Lane T. 2020. Road safety risks of cannabis use: sales need to fund research. Am. J. Public Health 110:265–66
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Hall WD, Lynskey M. 2005. Is cannabis a gateway drug? Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs. Drug Alcohol Rev 24:39–48
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Hall WD, Pacula RL. 2010. Cannabis Use and Dependence: Public Health and Public Policy Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  67. Hall WD, Patton G, Stockings E, Weier M, Lynskey M et al. 2016a. Why young people's substance use matters for global health. Lancet Psychiatry 3:265–79
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Hall WD, Renström M, Poznyak V 2016b. The Health and Social Effects of Nonmedical Cannabis Use Geneva: World Health Organ.
  69. Hall WD, Stjepanovic D, Caulkins J, Lynskey M, Leung J et al. 2019. Public health implications of legalising the production and sale of cannabis for medicinal and recreational use. Lancet 394:1580–90
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Hartman RL, Brown TL, Milavetz G, Spurgin A, Pierce RS et al. 2016. Cannabis effects on driving longitudinal control with and without alcohol. J. Appl. Toxicol. 36:1418–29
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Hartung B, Kauferstein S, Ritz-Timme S, Daldrup T 2014. Sudden unexpected death under acute influence of cannabis. Forensic Sci. Int. 237:e11–13
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Hasin DS. 2018. US epidemiology of cannabis use and associated problems. Neuropsychopharmacology 43:195–212
     [Google Scholar]
  73. Hels T, Bernhoft IM, Lyckegaard A, Houwing S, Hagenzieker M et al. 2011. Risk of injury by driving with alcohol and other drugs, DRUID (Driving under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines) Rep., Ghent Univ Ghent, Belg:.
  74. Henquet C, Krabbendam L, de Graaf R, ten Have M, van Os J 2006. Cannabis use and expression of mania in the general population. J. Affect. Disord. 95:103–10
     [Google Scholar]
  75. Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J, Kaplan C, Lieb R et al. 2005. Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. BMJ 330:11
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Hickman M, Vickerman P, Macleod J, Kirkbride J, Jones P 2007. Cannabis and schizophrenia: model projections of the impact of the rise in cannabis use on historical and future trends in schizophrenia in England and Wales. Addiction 102:597–606
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM, Coffey C, Patton GC, Tait R et al. 2012. Cannabis and depression: an integrative data analysis of four Australasian cohorts. Drug Alcohol Depend 126:369–78
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM, Hayatbakhsh MR, Najman JM, Coffey C et al. 2010. Cannabis use and educational achievement: findings from three Australasian cohort studies. Drug Alcohol Depend 110:247–53
     [Google Scholar]
  79. IHME (Inst. Health Metrics Eval.) 2017. GBD compare data visualization. Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/#
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Jackson NJ, Isen JD, Khoddam R, Irons D, Tuvblad C et al. 2016. Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: results from two longitudinal twin studies. PNAS 113:E500–8
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Jacobus J, Courtney KE, Hodgdon EA, Baca R 2019. Cannabis and the developing brain: what does the evidence say. ? Birth Defects Res 111:1302–7
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Kandel D. 2002. Stages and Pathways of Drug Involvement: Examining the Gateway Hypothesis New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  83. Kedzior KK, Laeber LT. 2014. A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population—a meta-analysis of 31 studies. BMC Psychiatry 14:136
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Kroon E, Kuhns L, Hoch E, Cousijn J 2019. Heavy cannabis use, dependence and the brain: a clinical perspective. Addiction 115:559–72
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Lai H, Sitharthan T. 2012. Exploration of the comorbidity of cannabis use disorders and mental health disorders among inpatients presenting to all hospitals in New South Wales, Australia. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 38:567–74
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Large M, Sharma S, Compton MT, Slade T, Nielssen O 2011. Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: a systematic meta-analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68:555–61
     [Google Scholar]
  87. Leung J, Chan GC, Hides L, Hall WD 2020. What is the prevalence and risk of cannabis use disorders among people who use cannabis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addict. Behav. 109:106479
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Lev-Ran S, Le Foll B, McKenzie K, George TP, Rehm J 2013. Bipolar disorder and co-occurring cannabis use disorders: characteristics, co-morbidities and clinical correlates. Psychiatry Res 209:459–65
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Lev-Ran S, Roerecke M, Le Foll B, George TP, McKenzie K, Rehm J 2014. The association between cannabis use and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychol. Med. 44:797–810
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Li M-C, Brady JE, DiMaggio CJ, Lusardi AR, Tzong KY, Li G 2012. Marijuana use and motor vehicle crashes. Epidemiol. Rev. 34:65–72
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Lorenzetti V, Alonso-Lana S, Youssef GJ, Verdejo-Garcia A, Suo C et al. 2016. Adolescent cannabis use: What is the evidence for functional brain alteration. ? Curr. Pharm. Des. 22:6353–65
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Lorenzetti V, Chye Y, Silva P, Solowij N, Roberts CA 2019. Does regular cannabis use affect neuroanatomy? An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 269:59–71
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Lorenzetti V, Hoch E, Hall W 2020. Adolescent cannabis use, cognition, brain health and educational outcomes: a review of the evidence. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 36:169–80
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Lynskey M, Hall W. 2000. The effects of adolescent cannabis use on educational attainment: a review. Addiction 95:1621–30
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Lynskey M, Heath AC, Bucholz KK, Slutske WS, Madden PA et al. 2003. Escalation of drug use in early-onset cannabis users versus co-twin controls. JAMA 289:427–33
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Lynskey M, Vink JM, Boomsma DI 2006. Early onset cannabis use and progression to other drug use in a sample of Dutch twins. Behav. Genet. 36:195–200
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Macleod J, Oakes R, Copello A, Crome I, Egger M et al. 2004. Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: a systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet 363:1579–88
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Mammen G, Rueda S, Roerecke M, Bonato S, Lev-Ran S, Rehm J 2018. Association of cannabis with long-term clinical symptoms in anxiety and mood disorders: a systematic review of prospective studies. J. Clin. Psychiatry 79:17r11839
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Marangoni C, Hernandez M, Faedda GL 2016. The role of environmental exposures as risk factors for bipolar disorder: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. J. Affect. Disord. 193:165–74
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Marconi A, Di Forti M, Murray RM, Lewis CM, Vassos E 2016. Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophr. Bull. 42:1262–69
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Marie O, Zölitz U. 2017. “High” achievers? Cannabis access and academic performance. Rev. Econ. Stud. 84:1210–37
     [Google Scholar]
  102. Meier M, Caspi A, Ambler A, Harrington H, Houts R et al. 2012. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. PNAS 109:E2657–64
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Meier M, Caspi A, Danese A, Fisher HL, Houts R et al. 2018. Associations between adolescent cannabis use and neuropsychological decline: a longitudinal co-twin control study. Addiction 113:257–65
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Messer T, Lammers G, Müller-Siecheneder F, Schmidt R-F, Latifi S 2017. Substance abuse in patients with bipolar disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res 253:338–50
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Miech RA, Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE, Patrick ME 2019. Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2018: Volume I, secondary school students Rep., Inst. Soc. Res., Univ. Michigan Ann Arbor, MI:
  106. Mokrysz C, Landy R, Gage SH, Munafo MR, Roiser JP, Curran HV 2016. Are IQ and educational outcomes in teenagers related to their cannabis use? A prospective cohort study. J. Psychopharmacol. 30:159–68
     [Google Scholar]
  107. Moore TH, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TR, Jones PB et al. 2007. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet 370:319–28
     [Google Scholar]
  108. Morin JG, Afzali MH, Bourque J, Stewart SH, Seguin JR et al. 2019. A population-based analysis of the relationship between substance use and adolescent cognitive development. Am. J. Psychiatry 176:98–106
     [Google Scholar]
  109. Morral A, McCaffrey D, Paddock S 2002. Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect. Addiction 97:1493–504
     [Google Scholar]
  110. NASEM (Natl. Acad. Sci. Eng. Med.) 2017. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research Washington, DC: NASEM
  111. Nielsen S, Gowing L, Sabioni P, Le Foll B 2019. Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 1:CD008940
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Noble MJ, Hedberg K, Hendrickson RG 2019. Acute cannabis toxicity. Clin. Toxicol. 57:735–42
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Norberg M, Mackenzie J, Copeland J 2012. Quantifying cannabis use with the timeline followback approach: a psychometric evaluation. Drug Alcohol Depend 121:247–52
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Pacheco-Colón I, Ramirez AR, Gonzalez R 2019. Effects of adolescent cannabis use on motivation and depression: a systematic review. Curr. Addict. Rep. 6:532–46
     [Google Scholar]
  115. Patton G, Harris J, Schwartz M, Bowes G 1997. Adolescent suicidal behaviors: a population-based study of risk. Psychol. Med. 27:715–24
     [Google Scholar]
  116. Patton G, Sawyer SM, Santelli JS, Ross DA, Afifi R et al. 2016. Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing. Lancet 387:2423–78
     [Google Scholar]
  117. Ramaekers JG, Mason NL, Theunissen EL 2020. Blunted highs: pharmacodynamic and behavioral models of cannabis tolerance. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 36:191–205
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Rasic D, Weerasinghe S, Asbridge M, Langille D 2013. Longitudinal associations of cannabis and illicit drug use with depression, suicidal ideation and suicidal attempts among Nova Scotia high school students. Drug Alcohol Depend 129:49–53
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Richmond-Rakerd LS, Fleming KA, Slutske WS 2015. Investigating progression in substance use initiation using a discrete-time multiple event process survival mixture (MEPSUM) approach. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 4:167–82
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Rogeberg O, Elvik R. 2016. The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised. Addiction 111:1348–59
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Room R, Fischer B, Hall WD, Lenton S, Reuter P 2010. Cannabis Policy: Moving Beyond Stalemate Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  122. SAMHSA (Subst. Abuse Ment. Health Serv. Adm.) 2017a. Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: detailed tables Rep., SAMHSA Rockville, MD:
  123. SAMHSA (Subst. Abuse Ment. Health Serv. Adm.) 2017b. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) 2005–2015. National admissions to substance abuse treatment services. Rep., SAMHSA Rockville, MD:
  124. Schmid Y, Scholz I, Mueller L, Exadaktylos AK, Ceschi A et al. 2020. Emergency department presentations related to acute toxicity following recreational use of cannabis products in Switzerland. Drug Alcohol Depend 206:107726
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Schoeler T, Monk A, Sami MB, Klamerus E, Foglia E et al. 2016. Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 3:215–25
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Scott JC, Slomiak ST, Jones JD, Rosen AFG, Moore TM, Gur RC 2018. Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 75:585–95
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Silberberg C, Castle D, Koethe D 2012. Cannabis, cannabinoids, and bipolar disorder. Marijuana and Madness D Castle, R Murray, D D'Souza 129–36 New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Smart R, Caulkins JP, Kilmer B, Davenport S, Midgette G 2017. Variation in cannabis potency and prices in a newly legal market: evidence from 30 million cannabis sales in Washington state. Addiction 112:2167–77
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Smart R, Pacula RL. 2019. Early evidence of the impact of cannabis legalization on cannabis use, cannabis use disorder, and the use of other substances: findings from state policy evaluations. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 45:644–63
     [Google Scholar]
  130. Tait RJ, Caldicott D, Mountain D, Hill SL, Lenton S 2016. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin. Toxicol. 54:1–13
     [Google Scholar]
  131. Tait RJ, Mackinnon A, Christensen H 2011. Cannabis use and cognitive function: 8-year trajectory in a young adult cohort. Addiction 106:2195–203
     [Google Scholar]
  132. Terry-McElrath YM, Patrick ME, O'Malley PM, Johnston LD 2018. The end of convergence in developmental patterns of frequent marijuana use from ages 18 to 30: an analysis of cohort change from 1976–2016. Drug Alcohol Depend 191:203–9
     [Google Scholar]
  133. Townsend L, Flisher AJ, King G 2007. A systematic review of the relationship between high school dropout and substance use. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 10:295–317
     [Google Scholar]
  134. van der Pol P, Liebregts N, Brunt T, van Amsterdam J, de Graaf R et al. 2014. Cross-sectional and prospective relation of cannabis potency, dosing and smoking behaviour with cannabis dependence: an ecological study. Addiction 109:1101–9
     [Google Scholar]
  135. van der Pol P, Liebregts N, de Graaf R, Korf DJ, van den Brink W, van Laar M 2013. Predicting the transition from frequent cannabis use to cannabis dependence: a three-year prospective study. Drug Alcohol Depend 133:352–59
     [Google Scholar]
  136. van Os J, Bak M, Hanssen M, Bijl RV, de Graaf R, Verdoux H 2002. Cannabis use and psychosis: a longitudinal population-based study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 156:319–27
     [Google Scholar]
  137. van Ours JC, Williams J, Fergusson D, Horwood LJ 2013. Cannabis use and suicidal ideation. J. Health Econ. 32:524–37
     [Google Scholar]
  138. Verweij KJ, Abdellaoui A, Nivard MG, Cort AS, Ligthart L et al. 2017. Genetic association between schizophrenia and cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend 171:117–21
     [Google Scholar]
  139. Verweij KJ, Huizink AC, Agrawal A, Martin NG, Lynskey MT 2013. Is the relationship between early-onset cannabis use and educational attainment causal or due to common liability. ? Drug Alcohol Depend 133:580–86
     [Google Scholar]
  140. Volkow N, Swanson JM, Evins AE, DeLisi LE, Meier MH et al. 2016. Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation, and psychosis: a review. JAMA Psychiatry 73:292–97
     [Google Scholar]
  141. Wagner FA, Anthony JC. 2002. Into the world of illegal drug use: exposure opportunity and other mechanisms linking the use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and cocaine. Am. J. Epidemiol. 155:918–25
     [Google Scholar]
  142. Werneck MA, Kortas GT, de Andrade AG, Castaldelli-Maia JM 2018. A systematic review of the efficacy of cannabinoid agonist replacement therapy for cannabis withdrawal symptoms. CNS Drugs 32:1113–29
     [Google Scholar]
  143. WHO (World Health Organ.) 2019. Global school-based student health survey (GSHS) Dataset, WHO, Geneva. https://www.who.int/ncds/surveillance/gshs/datasets/en/
  144. Witt K, van Dorn R, Fazel S 2013. Risk factors for violence in psychosis: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of 110 studies. PLOS ONE 8:e55942
     [Google Scholar]
  145. Zammit S, Allebeck P, Andreasson S, Lundberg I, Lewis G 2002. Self reported cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia in Swedish conscripts of 1969: historical cohort study. BMJ 325:1199
     [Google Scholar]
  146. Zehra A, Burns J, Liu CK, Manza P, Wiers CE et al. 2018. Cannabis addiction and the brain: a review. J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 13:438–52
     [Google Scholar]
  147. Zimmermann M, Chong AK, Vechiu C, Papa A 2019. Modifiable risk and protective factors for anxiety disorders among adults: a systematic review. Psychiatry Res 285:112705
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904
Loading
The Effects of Cannabis Use on the Development of Adolescents and Young Adults
Annual Review of Developmental Psychology 2, 461 (2020); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-040320-084904
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error