1932

Abstract

For more than four decades, I have been studying human memory. My research concerns the malleable nature of memory. Information suggested to an individual about an event can be integrated with the memory of the event itself, so that what actually occurred, and what was discussed later about what may have occurred, become inextricably interwoven, allowing distortion, elaboration, and even total fabrication. In my writings, classes, and public speeches, I've tried to convey one important take-home message: Just because someone tells you something in great detail, with much confidence, and with emotion, it doesn't mean that it is true. Here I describe my professional life as an experimental psychologist, in which I've eavesdropped on this process, as well as many personal experiences that may have influenced my thinking and choices.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044138
2017-01-03
2024-04-19
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/psych/68/1/annurev-psych-010416-044138.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044138&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Belluck P. 2015. Memories weaken without reinforcement, study finds. The New York Times March 17, p A8
  2. Bernstein DM, Laney C, Morris EK, Loftus EF. 2005. False memories about food can lead to food avoidance. Soc. Cogn. 23:10–33 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bernstein DM, Laney C, Morris EK, Loftus EF. 2005. False beliefs about fattening foods can have healthy consequences. PNAS 102:13724–31 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bernstein DM, Loftus EF. 2009. How to tell if a particular memory is true or false. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 4:370–74 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Brooks D. 2015. The year of unearthed memories. The New York Times Dec. 15 A35
  6. Clifasefi SL, Bernstein DB, Mantonakis A, Loftus EF. 2013. “Queasy does it”: False alcohol beliefs and memories lead to diminished alcohol preferences. Acta Psychol 143:14–19 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  7. Collins AM, Loftus EF. 1975. A spreading activation theory of semantic processing. Psychol. Rev. 82:407–28 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. Fishman EF, Keller L, Atkinson RC. 1968. Massed versus distributed practice in computerized spelling drills. J. Educ. Psychol. 59:290–96 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  9. Freedman JL, Loftus EF. 1971. Retrieval of words from long-term memory. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 10:107–15 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  10. Frenda SJ, Berkowitz SR, Loftus EF, Fenn KM. 2016. Sleep deprivation and false confessions. PNAS 113:2047–50 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  11. Frenda SJ, Nichols RM, Loftus EF. 2011. Current issues and advances in misinformation research. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 20:20–23 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  12. Frenda SJ, Patihis L, Loftus EF, Lewis HC, Fenn KM. 2014. Sleep deprivation and false memories. Psychol. Sci. 25:1674–81 [Google Scholar]
  13. Geis G, Loftus EF. 2009. Taus v. Loftus: determining the legal ground rules for scholarly inquiry. J. Forensic Psychol. Pract. 9:147–62 [Google Scholar]
  14. Lepore J. 2016. Baby Doe: a political history of tragedy. The New Yorker Feb. 1, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/02/01/baby-doe
  15. Loftus EF. 1974. Reconstructing memory: the incredible eyewitness. Psychol. Today 8:116–19 [Google Scholar]
  16. Loftus EF. 1975. Leading questions and the eyewitness report. Cogn. Psychol. 7:560–72 [Google Scholar]
  17. Loftus EF. 1979. Eyewitness Testimony Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  18. Loftus EF. 1986a. Experimental psychologist as advocate or impartial educator. Law Hum. Behav. 10:63–78 [Google Scholar]
  19. Loftus EF. 1986b. Ten years in the life of an expert witness. Law Hum. Behav. 10:241–63 [Google Scholar]
  20. Loftus EF. 1992. When a lie becomes memory's truth. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 1:121–23 [Google Scholar]
  21. Loftus EF. 1993. The reality of repressed memories. Am. Psychol. 48:518–37 [Google Scholar]
  22. Loftus EF. 2003a. Dear Mother: facing the loss of a parent. Psychol. Today May 1 68–70
  23. Loftus EF. 2003b. Make-believe memories. Am. Psychol. 58:864–73 [Google Scholar]
  24. Loftus EF. 2005. Planting misinformation in the human mind: a 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learn. Mem. 12:361–66 [Google Scholar]
  25. Loftus EF. 2007a. Elizabeth F. Loftus (autobiography). History of Psychology in Autobiography IX G Lindzey, M Runyan 198–227 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc. Press [Google Scholar]
  26. Loftus EF. 2007b. Memory distortions: problems solved and unsolved. Do Justice and Let the Skies Fall: Elizabeth Loftus and her Contributions to Science, Law and Academic Freedom M Garry, H Hayne 1–14 Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. [Google Scholar]
  27. Loftus EF, Davis D. 2006. Recovered memories. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2:469–98 [Google Scholar]
  28. Loftus EF, Freedman JL. 1972. Effect of category-name frequency on the speed of naming an instance of the category. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 11:343–47 [Google Scholar]
  29. Loftus EF, Guyer M. 2002a. Who abused Jane Doe? The hazards of the single case history. Part I. Skept. Inq. 26:324–32 [Google Scholar]
  30. Loftus EF, Guyer MJ. 2002b. Who abused Jane Doe? The hazards of the single case history. Part II. Skept. Inq. 26:437–40 [Google Scholar]
  31. Loftus EF, Hoffman HG. 1989. Misinformation and memory: the creation of memory. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 118:100–4 [Google Scholar]
  32. Loftus EF, Ketcham K. 1991. Witness for the Defense: The Accused, the Eyewitness, and the Expert Who Puts Memory on Trial New York: St. Martin's Press
  33. Loftus EF, Ketcham K. 1994. The Myth of Repressed Memory New York: St. Martin's Press
  34. Loftus EF, Levidow B, Duensing S. 1992. Who remembers best? Individual differences in memory for events that occurred in a science museum. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 6:93–107 [Google Scholar]
  35. Loftus EF, Loftus GR. 1980. On the permanence of stored information in the human brain. Am. Psychol. 35:409–20 [Google Scholar]
  36. Loftus EF, Palmer JC. 1974. Reconstruction of automobile destruction: an example of the interaction between language and memory. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 13:585–89 [Google Scholar]
  37. Loftus EF, Pickrell JE. 1995. The formation of false memories. Psychiatr. Ann. 25:720–25 [Google Scholar]
  38. Loftus EF, Suppes P. 1972. Structural variables that determine problem-solving difficulty in computer-assisted instruction. J. Educ. Psychol. 63:531–42 [Google Scholar]
  39. Mantonakis A, Wudarzewski A, Bernstein DM, Clifasefi SL, Loftus EF. 2013. False beliefs can shape current consumption. Psychology 4:302–8 [Google Scholar]
  40. Patihis L, Frenda SJ, LePort AKR, Petersen N, Nichols RM. et al. 2013. False memories in highly superior autobiographical memory individuals. PNAS 110:20947–52 [Google Scholar]
  41. Patihis L, Ho LY, Tingen IW, Lilienfeld SO, Loftus EF. 2014. Are the “memory wars” over? A scientist-practitioner gap in beliefs about repressed memory. Psychol. Sci. 25:519–30 [Google Scholar]
  42. Schulz K. 2016. Dead certainty: how “Making a Murderer” goes wrong. The New Yorker Jan. 25, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/01/25/dead-certainty [Google Scholar]
  43. Zhu B, Chen C, Loftus EF, He Q, Chen C. et al. 2012. Brief exposure to misinformation can lead to long-term false memories. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 26:301–7 [Google Scholar]
  44. Zhu B, Chen C, Loftus EF, Lin C, He Q. et al. 2010. Individual differences in false memory from misinformation: cognitive factors. Memory 18:543–55 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044138
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044138
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error