Intergenerational Economic Mobility for Low-Income Parents and Their Children: A Dual Developmental Science Framework

Literature Cited

1. Ainsworth MS. 1989. Attachments beyond infancy. Am. Psychol. 44:709–16
   [Google Scholar]
2. Araujo MC, Carneiro P, Cruz-Aguayo Y, Schady N 2016. Teacher quality and learning outcomes in kindergarten. Q. J. Econ. 131:1415–53
   [Google Scholar]
3. Bailey T, Jeong DW, Cho SW 2010. Referral, enrollment, and completion in developmental education sequences in community colleges. Econ. Educ. Rev. 29:255–70
   [Google Scholar]
4. Baldwin JM. 1895. Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes New York: Macmillan
5. Baltes MM, Carstensen LL. 1996. The process of successful ageing. Ageing Soc 16:397–422
   [Google Scholar]
6. Beller E, Hout M. 2006. Intergenerational social mobility: the United States in comparative perspective. Future Child 16:19–36
   [Google Scholar]
7. Belsky J, Vandell DL, Burchinal M, Clarke-Stewart KA, McCartney K et al. 2007. Are there long-term effects of early child care. Child Dev 78:681–701
   [Google Scholar]
8. Berlin LJ, Martoccio TL, Harden BJ 2018. Improving Early Head Start's impacts on parenting through attachment-based intervention: a randomized controlled trial. Dev. Psychol. 54:2316–27
   [Google Scholar]
9. Black SE, Devereux PJ, Salvanes KG 2005. Why the apple doesn't fall far: understanding intergenerational transmission of human capital. Am. Econ. Rev. 95:437–49
   [Google Scholar]
10. Blair C, Raver CC. 2015. School readiness and self-regulation: a developmental psychobiological approach. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 66:711–31
    [Google Scholar]
11. Blair C, Raver CC. 2016. Poverty, stress, and brain development: new directions for prevention and intervention. Acad. Pediatr. 16:S30–36
    [Google Scholar]
12. Boivin M, Bierman KL 2013. Promoting School Readiness and Early Learning: Implications of Developmental Research for Practice New York: Guilford
13. Bornstein MH. 2019. Handbook of Parenting, Vol. 1: Children and Parenting East Sussex, UK: Psychol. Press. , 3rd.. ed.
    [Google Scholar]
14. Bradbury B, Corak M, Waldfogel J, Washbrook E 2011. Inequality during the early years: child outcomes and readiness to learn in Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and United States IZA Discuss. Pap. No. 6120 Inst. Study Labor Bonn, Ger:.
15. Bronfenbrenner U, Morris PA. 1998. The ecology of developmental processes. Handbook of Child Psychology: Theoretical Models of Human Development W Damon, RM Lerner 993–1028 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
16. Brooks R, Meltzoff AN. 2005. The development of gaze following and its relation to language. Dev. Sci. 8:535–43
    [Google Scholar]
17. Brooks-Gunn J, Duncan G. 1997. The effects of poverty on children. Future Child 7:55–71
    [Google Scholar]
18. Brooks-Gunn J, Markman-Pithers L, Rouse CE 2016. Starting early: introducing the issue. Future Child 26:3–19
    [Google Scholar]
19. Brooks-Gunn J, McCarton C, Casey P, McCormick M, Bauer C et al. 1994. Early intervention in low birth weight, premature infants: results through age 5 years from the Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA 272:1257–62
    [Google Scholar]
20. Bulotsky-Shearer RJ, Wen X, Faria A, Hahs-Vaughn DL, Korfmacher J 2012. National profiles of classroom quality and family involvement: a multilevel examination of proximal influences on Head Start children's school readiness. Early Child. Res. Q. 27:627–39
    [Google Scholar]
21. Burchinal M, Zaslow M, Tarullo L 2016. Quality thresholds, features, and dosage in early care and education: secondary data analyses of child outcomes. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 81:2)
    [Google Scholar]
22. Cairns RB, Elder GH Jr., Costello EJ 1996. Cambridge studies in social and emotional development. Developmental Science RB Cairns, GH Elder Jr., EJ Costello 223–34 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
23. Camilli G, Vargas S, Ryan S, Barnett WS 2010. Meta-analysis of the effects of early education interventions on cognitive and social development. Teach. Coll. Rec. 112:579–620
    [Google Scholar]
24. Carneiro P, Meghir C, Parey M 2013. Maternal education, home environments, and the development of children and adolescents. J. Eur. Econ. Assoc. 11:123–60
    [Google Scholar]
25. Case A, Deaton AS. 2005. Broken down by work and sex: how our health declines. Analyses in the Economics of Aging D Wise 185–212 Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
26. Cassidy J, Shaver PR 2016. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications New York: Guilford. , 3rd. ed.
27. Chase-Lansdale PL, Brooks-Gunn J. 2014. Two-generation programs in the twenty-first century. Future Child 24:13–39
    [Google Scholar]
28. Chase-Lansdale PL, Sabol TJ, Sommer TE, Chor E, Cooperman AW et al. 2019. Effects of a two-generation human capital program on low-income parents’ education, employment and psychological well-being. J. Fam. Psychol. 33:433–43
    [Google Scholar]
29. Chetty R, Hendren N, Kline P, Saez E, Turner N 2014. Is the United States still a land of opportunity? Recent trends in intergenerational mobility. Am. Econ. Rev. 104:141–47
    [Google Scholar]
30. Chor E, Sabol T, Sommer TE, Chase-Lansdale PL, Tighe LA et al. 2020. What are the effects of a two-generation human capital program on Head Start parents' later education, career, and economic well-being? Two-Generation Programs Policy Br. IV, Ascend at the Aspen Institute Washington, DC:
31. Christodoulou J, Lac A, Moore DS 2017. Babies and math: a meta-analysis of infants’ simple arithmetic competence. Dev. Psychol. 53:1405–17
    [Google Scholar]
32. Clements DH, Sarama J. 2016. Math, science, and technology in the early grades. Future Child 26:75–94
    [Google Scholar]
33. Coley RL, Ribar D, Votruba‐Drzal E 2011. Do children's behavior problems limit poor women's labor market success. J. Marriage Fam. 73:33–45
    [Google Scholar]
34. Conger RD, Donnellan MB. 2007. An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 58:175–99
    [Google Scholar]
35. Conger RD, Wallace LE, Sun Y, Simons RL, McLoyd VC, Brody GH 2002. Economic pressure in African American families: a replication and extension of the family stress model. Dev. Psychol. 38:179–93
    [Google Scholar]
36. Congr. Res. Serv 2019. Real wage trends, 1979 to 2018 Rep. R45090, Congr. Res. Serv Washington, DC: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45090
37. Conway M, Giloth RP 2014. Connecting People to Work: Workforce Intermediaries and Sector Strategies New York: Aspen Inst.
38. Cunha F, Heckman J. 2007. The technology of skill formation. Am. Econ. Rev. 97:31–47
    [Google Scholar]
39. Currie J, Moretti E. 2003. Mother's education and the intergenerational transmission of human capital: evidence from college openings. Q. J. Econ. 118:1495–532
    [Google Scholar]
40. Deming DJ, Dynarski S. 2010. Into college, out of poverty? Policies to increase the postsecondary attainment of the poor. Targeting Investments in Children: Fighting Poverty When Resources Are Limited PB Levine, DJ Zimmerman 283–302 Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
41. Dodge KA, Goodman WB, Murphy RA, O'Donnell K, Sato J, Guptill S 2014. Implementation and randomized controlled trial evaluation of universal postnatal nurse home visiting. Am. J. Public Health 104:S136–43
    [Google Scholar]
42. Dozier M, Bernard K. 2017. Attachment and biobehavioral catch-up: addressing the needs of infants and toddlers exposed to inadequate or problematic caregiving. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 15:111–17
    [Google Scholar]
43. Duckworth AL, Yeager DS. 2015. Measurement matters: assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educ. Res. 44:237–51
    [Google Scholar]
44. Duncan GJ, Dowsett CJ, Claessens A, Magnuson K, Huston AC et al. 2007. School readiness and later achievement. Dev. Psychol. 43:1428–46
    [Google Scholar]
45. Duncan GJ, Murnane RJ 2011. Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children's Life Chances New York: Russell Sage Found.
46. Dweck CS. 2002. The development of ability conceptions. Development of Achievement Motivationed. A Wigfield, JS Eccles57–88 London: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
47. Dworsky A, Courtney ME, Zinn A 2007. Child, parent, and family predictors of child welfare services involvement among TANF applicant families. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 29:802–20
    [Google Scholar]
48. Elder GH Jr 1998. The life course as developmental theory. Child Dev 69:1–12
    [Google Scholar]
49. Elder GH Jr., Van Nguyen T, Caspi A. 1985. Linking family hardship to children's lives. Child Dev 56:361–75
    [Google Scholar]
50. Fischer M. 1990. Parenting stress and the child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 19:337–46
    [Google Scholar]
51. Fitzsimons GM, Finkel EJ, Vandellen MR 2015. Transactive goal dynamics. Psychol. Rev. 122:648–73
    [Google Scholar]
52. Forgatch MS, Patterson GR. 2010. Parent Management Training—Oregon Model: an intervention for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. Evidence-Based Psychotherapies for Children and Adolescents JR Weisz, AE Kazdin 159–77 New York: Guilford
    [Google Scholar]
53. Freeman AL. 2017. Moving “up and out” together: exploring the mother-child bond in low‐income, single‐mother‐headed families. J. Marriage Fam. 79:675–89
    [Google Scholar]
54. Gardner M, Brooks-Gunn J, Chase-Lansdale PL 2017. The two-generation approach to building human capital: past, present, and future. Wiley Handbook of Early Childhood Development Programs, Practices, and Policies E Votruba-Drzal, E Dearing 330–62 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
55. Gennetian LA, Magnuson K, Morris PA 2008. From statistical associations to causation: what developmentalists can learn from instrumental variables techniques coupled with experimental data. Dev. Psychol. 44:381–95
    [Google Scholar]
56. Gormley WT, Phillips D, Gayer T 2008. Preschool programs can boost school readiness. Science 320:1723–24
    [Google Scholar]
57. Granger R, Cytron R. 1999. Teenage parent programs: a synthesis of the long-term effects of the New Chance Demonstration, Ohio's learning, earning, and parenting program, and the Teenage Parent Demonstration. Eval. Rev. 23:107–45
    [Google Scholar]
58. Gray JD, Rubin TG, Hunter RG, McEwen BS 2014. Hippocampal gene expression changes underlying stress sensitization and recovery. Mol. Psychiatry 19:1171–78
    [Google Scholar]
59. Guryan J, Hurst E, Kearney M 2008. Parental education and parental time with children. J. Econ. Perspect. 22:23–46
    [Google Scholar]
60. Haegeland T, Kirkebøen LJ, Raaum O, Salvanes KG 2010. Why children of college graduates outperform their schoolmates: a study of cousins and adoptees IZA Discuss. Pap. No. 5369 Inst. Study Labor Bonn, Ger:.
61. Hamre BK, Pianta RC. 2005. Can instructional and emotional support in the first-grade classroom make a difference for children at risk of school failure. Child Dev 76:949–67
    [Google Scholar]
62. Harackiewicz JM, Priniski SJ. 2018. Improving student outcomes in higher education: the science of targeted intervention. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 69:409–35
    [Google Scholar]
63. Harding JF. 2015. Increases in maternal education and low-income children's cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Dev. Psychol. 51:583–99
    [Google Scholar]
64. Harding JF, Morris PA, Hughes D 2015. The relationship between maternal education and children's academic outcomes: a theoretical framework. J. Marriage Fam. 77:60–76
    [Google Scholar]
65. Haskins R, Brooks-Gunn J. 2016. Trouble in the land of early childhood education? Policy Br., Future Child., Princeton Univ Princeton, NJ:
66. Heckman JJ. 2006. Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science 312:1900–2
    [Google Scholar]
67. Heckman JJ, Pinto R, Savelyev P 2013. Understanding the mechanisms through which an influential early childhood program boosted adult outcomes. Am. Econ. Rev. 103:2052–86
    [Google Scholar]
68. Hendra R, Greenberg DH, Hamilton G, Oppenheim A, Pennington A et al. 2016. Encouraging evidence on a sector-focused advancement strategy: a preview summary of two-year impacts from the WorkAdvance demonstration Rep., MDRC New York:
69. Henly JR, Lambert SJ. 2014. Unpredictable work timing in retail jobs: implications for employee work-life conflict. ILR Rev 67:986–1016
    [Google Scholar]
70. Holzer H. 2018. A “race to the top” in public higher education to improve education and employment among the poor. Russell Sage Found. J. Soc. Sci. 4:84–99
    [Google Scholar]
71. Holzer H, Nightingale DS. 2009. Strong students, strong workers: models for student success through workforce development and community college partnerships Rep., Cent. Am. Prog Washington, DC:
72. Hsueh J, Farrell M. 2012. Enhanced early Head Start with employment services: 42-month impacts from the Kansas and Missouri sites of the enhanced services for the hard-to-employ demonstration and evaluation project Rep., Off. Plan. Res. Eval., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv Washington, DC:
73. Huston AC, Duncan GJ, Granger R, Bos J, McLoyd V et al. 2001. Work-based antipoverty programs for parents can enhance the school performance and social behavior of children. Child Dev 72:318–36
    [Google Scholar]
74. Infant Health Dev. Program 1990. Enhancing the outcomes of low birth weight, premature infants: a multisite, randomized trial. JAMA 263:3035–42
    [Google Scholar]
75. Jiang Y, Granja MR, Koball H 2017. Basic facts about low-income children: children 6 through 11 years, 2015 Rep., Natl. Cent. Child. Poverty New York:
76. Jorgensen BL, Savla J. 2010. Financial literacy of young adults: the importance of parental socialization. Fam. Relat. 59:465–78
    [Google Scholar]
77. Kahl JA. 1953. Educational and occupational aspirations of “common man” boys. Harv. Educ. Rev. 23:186–203
    [Google Scholar]
78. Kalil A, Ryan R, Corey M 2012. Diverging destinies: maternal education and the developmental gradient in time with children. Demography 49:1361–83
    [Google Scholar]
79. Kessen W 1965. The Child New York: Wiley
80. Klibanoff RS, Levine SC, Huttenlocher J, Vasilyeva M, Hedges LV 2006. Preschool children's mathematical knowledge: the effect of teacher “math talk. .” Dev. Psychol. 42:59–69
    [Google Scholar]
81. Lee D, Brooks-Gunn J, McLanahan S, Notterman D, Garfinkel I 2013. The Great Recession, genetic sensitivity, and maternal harsh parenting. PNAS 110:13780–84
    [Google Scholar]
82. Lengua LJ, Gartstein MA, Prinzie P 2019. Temperament and personality trait development in the family: interactions and transactions with parenting from infancy through adolescence. Handbook of Personality Development DP McAdams, RL Shiner, JL Tackett 201–20 New York: Guilford
    [Google Scholar]
83. Lipset SM, Bendix R. 2017. Social Mobility in Industrial Society London: Routledge
84. Lipsey MW, Hofer KG, Dong N, Farran DC, Bilbrey C 2013. Evaluation of the Tennessee Voluntary Prekindergarten Program: kindergarten and first grade follow-up results from the randomized control design Res. Rep., Peabody Res. Inst., Vanderbilt Univ Nashville, TN:
85. Lloyd DN. 1978. Prediction of school failure from third-grade data. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 38:1193–200
    [Google Scholar]
86. Love JM, Chazan-Cohen R, Raikes H, Brooks-Gunn J 2013. What makes a difference: Early Head Start Evaluation findings in a developmental context. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 78:1)
    [Google Scholar]
87. Maccoby EE. 2000. Parenting and its effects on children: on reading and misreading behavior genetics. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 51:1–27
    [Google Scholar]
88. Magnuson K. 2007. Maternal education and children's academic achievement during middle childhood. Dev. Psychol. 43:1497–512
    [Google Scholar]
89. Maguire S, Freely J, Clymer C, Conway M, Schwartz D 2010. Tuning in to local labor markets: findings from the Sectoral Employment Impact Study Res. Rep., Public/Private Ventures Philadelphia:
90. Masten AS, Gewirtz AH. 2006. Vulnerability and resilience in early child development. The Blackwell Handbook of Early Childhood Development K McCarney, D Phillips 22–43 Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell
    [Google Scholar]
91. McCormick MC, Brooks-Gunn J, Buka SL, Goldman J, Yu J et al. 2006. Early intervention in low birth weight premature infants: results at 18 years of age for the Infant Health and Development Program. Pediatrics 117:771–80
    [Google Scholar]
92. McDermott ER, Donlan AE, Zaff JF 2018. Self-control and persistence in the transition to adulthood: employment outcomes among individuals with no credential, a GED, and a high school diploma. Comp. J. Comp. Int. Educ. 49:742–58
    [Google Scholar]
93. Merriam SB. 2001. Andragogy and self‐directed learning: pillars of adult learning theory. New Dir. Adult Contin. Educ. 89:3–14
    [Google Scholar]
94. Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, Dickson N, Hancox RJ et al. 2011. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. PNAS 108:2693–98
    [Google Scholar]
95. Mol SE, Bus AG, De Jong MT, Smeets DJ 2008. Added value of dialogic parent-child book readings: a meta-analysis. Early Educ. Dev. 19:7–26
    [Google Scholar]
96. Mullainathan S, Shafir E 2013. Why Having Too Little Means So Much New York: Henry Holt & Co.
97. Natl. Cent. Educ. Stat 2017. Highlights of the 2017 U.S. PIAAC results web report (NCES 2020–777) Rep., US Dep. Educ., Inst. Educ. Sci., Natl. Cent. Educ. Stat Washington, DC: https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/current_results.asp
98. Natl. Inst. Child Health Hum. Dev. Early Child Care Res. Netw 1998. Early child care and self-control, compliance, and problem behavior at twenty-four and thirty-six months. Child Dev 69:1145–70
    [Google Scholar]
99. Natl. Inst. Child Health Hum. Dev. Early Child Care Res. Netw 2003. Does amount of time spent in child care predict socioemotional adjustment during the transition to kindergarten?. Child Dev 74:976–1005
    [Google Scholar]
100. Natl. Res. Counc 2009. Mathematics in Early Childhood: Learning Paths Toward Equity Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
101. Nelson CA, Webb SJ. 2003. A cognitive neuroscience perspective on early memory development. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Development: Studies in Developmental Psychology M de Haan, MH Johnson 99–125 East Sussex, UK: Psychol. Press
     [Google Scholar]
102. Neville HJ, Stevens C, Pakulak E, Bell TA, Fanning J et al. 2013. Family-based training program improves brain function, cognition, and behavior in lower socioeconomic status preschoolers. PNAS 110:12138–43
     [Google Scholar]
103. Noble KG, Tottenham N, Casey BJ 2005. Neuroscience perspectives on disparities in school readiness and cognitive achievement. Future Child 15:71–89
     [Google Scholar]
104. Olds DL, Henderson CR, Chamberlin R, Tatelbaum RT 1986. Preventing child abuse and neglect: a randomized trial of nurse home visitation. Pediatrics 78:65–78
     [Google Scholar]
105. Olds DL, Kitzman H, Cole R, Robinson J, Sidora K et al. 2004. Effects of nurse home-visiting on maternal life course and child development: age 6 follow-up results of a randomized trial. Pediatrics 114:1550–59
     [Google Scholar]
106. Oreopoulos P, Page ME, Stevens AH 2006. The intergenerational effects of compulsory schooling. J. Labor Econ. 24:729–60
     [Google Scholar]
107. Pace A, Luo R, Hirsh-Pasek K, Golinkoff RM 2017. Identifying pathways between socioeconomic status and language development. Annu. Rev. Linguist. 3:285–308
     [Google Scholar]
108. Pan BA, Rowe ML, Singer JD, Snow CE 2005. Maternal correlates of growth in toddler vocabulary production in low-income families. Child Dev 76:763–82
     [Google Scholar]
109. Patterson GR, Forgatch MS, DeGarmo DS 2010. Cascading effects following intervention. Dev. Psychopathol. 22:949–70
     [Google Scholar]
110. Pellegrini AD, Stanic GM. 1993. Locating children's mathematical competence: application of the developmental niche. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 14:501–20
     [Google Scholar]
111. Phillips DA, Lipsey MW, Dodge KA, Haskins R, Bassok D et al. 2017. Puzzling it out: the current state of scientific knowledge on pre-kindergarten effects. Brookings Apr. 17
     [Google Scholar]
112. Phillips DA, Lowenstein AE. 2011. Early care, education, and child development. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 62:483–500
     [Google Scholar]
113. Puma M, Bell S, Cook R, Heid C, Shapiro G et al. 2010. Head Start Impact Study: Final report Rep., Off. Plan. Res. Eval., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv Washington, DC:
114. Raver CC, Blair C. 2016. Neuroscientific insights: attention, working memory, and inhibitory control. Future Child 26:95–118
     [Google Scholar]
115. Reeves RV. 2014. Saving Horatio Alger: Equality, Opportunity, and the American Dream Washington, DC: Brookings Inst.
116. Reichman NE, McLanahan SS. 2001. Self‐sufficiency programs and parenting interventions: lessons from New Chance and the Teenage Parent Demonstration. Soc. Policy Rep. 15:1–16
     [Google Scholar]
117. Richburg-Hayes L, Brock T, LeBlanc A, Paxson CH, Rouse CE, Barrow L 2009. Rewarding persistence: effects of a performance-based scholarship program for low-income parents Work. Pap., MDRC New York:
118. Riley JW, Riley MW. 1994. Beyond productive aging. Ageing Int 21:15–19
     [Google Scholar]
119. Roberts BW, Kuncel NR, Shiner R, Caspi A, Goldberg LR 2007. The power of personality: the comparative validity of personality traits, socioeconomic status, and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2:313–45
     [Google Scholar]
120. Roisman GI, Madsen SD, Hennighausen KH, Sroufe LA, Collins WA 2001. The coherence of dyadic behavior across parent-child and romantic relationships as mediated by the internalized representation of experience. Attach. Hum. Dev. 3:156–72
     [Google Scholar]
121. Rudd RE. 2007. Health literacy skills of U.S. adults. Am. J. Health Behav. 31:S8–18
     [Google Scholar]
122. Sabol TJ, Chase-Lansdale PL. 2015. The influence of low-income children's participation in Head Start on their parents’ education and employment. J. Policy Anal. Manag. 34:136–61
     [Google Scholar]
123. Sabol TJ, Chor E, Sommer TE, Chase-Lansdale PL, Morris A et al. 2019. What are the effects of a two-generation human capital program on children's outcomes in Head Start? Two-Generation Programs Policy Br. II, Ascend at the Aspen Institute Washington, DC: https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/sites.northwestern.edu/dist/6/3833/files/2019/10/Brief-II-One-and-Two-year-Effects-of-CareerAdvance-on-Child-Outcomes_05-10-19.pdf
124. Sameroff A. 2010. A unified theory of development: a dialectic integration of nature and nurture. Child Dev 81:6–22
     [Google Scholar]
125. Sawhill IV, Reeves RV. 2016. Modeling equal opportunity. Russell Sage Found. J. Soc. Sci. 2:60–97
     [Google Scholar]
126. Sheline YI, Wang PW, Gado MH, Csernansky JG, Vannier MW 1996. Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression. PNAS 93:3908–13
     [Google Scholar]
127. Shonkoff JP, Phillips DANatl. Res. Counc 2000. Nurturing relationships. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
     [Google Scholar]
128. Small M. 2009. Unanticipated Gains: Origins of Network Inequality in Everyday Life New York: Oxford Univ. Press
129. Sommer TE, Chase-Lansdale PL, Brooks-Gunn J, Gardner M, Rauner DM, Freel K 2012. Early childhood education centers and mothers’ postsecondary attainment: a new conceptual framework for a dual-generation education intervention. Teach. Coll. Rec. 114:1–40
     [Google Scholar]
130. Sommer TE, Sabol TJ, Chor E, Schneider W, Chase-Lansdale PL et al. 2018. A two-generation human capital approach to anti-poverty policy. Russell Sage Found. J. Soc. Sci. 4:118–43
     [Google Scholar]
131. Sommer TE, Schneider W, Chor E, Sabol TJ, Chase-Lansdale PL et al. 2020. A two-generation education intervention and children's attendance in Head Start. Child Dev In press. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13397
     [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
132. Smeeding TM. 2016. Multiple barriers to economic opportunity for the “truly” disadvantaged and vulnerable. Russell Sage Found. J. Soc. Sci. 2:98–122
     [Google Scholar]
133. Snow CE, Matthews TJ. 2016. Reading and language in the early grades. Future Child 26:57–74
     [Google Scholar]
134. Strumbos D, Linderman D, Hicks CC 2018. Postsecondary pathways out of poverty: CUNY ASAP and the case for national policy. Russell Sage Found. J. Soc. Sci. 4:100–17
     [Google Scholar]
135. Super CM, Harkness S. 1999. The environment as culture in developmental research. Measuring Environment Across the Life Span: Emerging Methods and Concepts SL Friedman, TD Wachs 279–323 Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
     [Google Scholar]
136. Thorndike EL, Bregman EO, Tilton J, Woodyard E 1928. Adult Learning New York: Macmillan
137. Ulmer C, Long HB. 2018. New perspectives on literacy education in the United States. New Perspectives on the Education of Adults in the United States HB Long 107–26 New York: Routledge
     [Google Scholar]
138. Wagner MM, Clayton SL. 1999. The parents as teachers program: results from two demonstrations. Future Child 9:91–115
     [Google Scholar]
139. Weisleder A, Fernald A. 2014. Social environments shape children's language experiences, strengthening language processing and building vocabulary. Language in Interaction: Studies in Honor of Eve V. Clark I Arnon, M Casillas, C Kurumada, B Estigarribia 29–49 Amsterdam, Neth: John Benjamins Publ.
     [Google Scholar]
140. Wettstein M, Schilling OK, Wahl HW 2016. “Still feeling healthy after all these years”: The paradox of subjective stability versus objective decline in very old adults’ health and functioning across five years. Psychol. Aging 31:815–30
     [Google Scholar]
141. Wettstein M, Wahl H-W. 2016. Plasticity of aging. Encyclopedia of Geropsychology AN Pachana 1823–31 Singapore: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
142. Wynn K. 1992. Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature 358:749–50
     [Google Scholar]
143. Yeung WJ, Linver MR, Brooks-Gunn J 2002. How money matters for young children's development: parental investment and family processes. Child Dev 73:1861–79
     [Google Scholar]
144. Yoshikawa H, Weiland C, Brooks-Gunn J 2016. When does preschool matter. Future Child 26:21–35
     [Google Scholar]
145. Zahodne LB, Glymour MM, Sparks C, Bontempo D, Dixon RA et al. 2011. Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-year evidence from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17:1039–46
     [Google Scholar]