1932

Abstract

Residents of rural jurisdictions face significant health challenges, including some of the highest rates of risky health behaviors and worst health outcomes of any group in the country. Rural communities are served by smaller local health departments (LHDs) that are more understaffed and underfunded than their suburban and urban peers. As a result of history and current need, rural LHDs are more likely than their urban peers to be providers of direct health services, leading to relatively lower levels of population-focused activities. This review examines the double disparity faced by rural LHDs and their constituents: pervasively poorer health behaviors and outcomes and a historical lack of investment by local, state, and federal public health entities.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122755
2016-03-18
2024-04-18
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/publhealth/37/1/annurev-publhealth-031914-122755.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122755&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1. Am. Lung Assoc 2012. Cutting Tobacco's Rural Roots: Tobacco Use in Rural Communities New York: Am. Lung Assoc.
  2. Arcury TA, Chen H, Savoca MR, Anderson AM, Leng X. 2.  et al. 2013. Ethnic variation in oral health and social integration among older rural adults. J. Appl. Gerontol. 32:302–23 [Google Scholar]
  3. Arcury TA, Grzywacz JG, Ip EH, Saldana S, Nguyen HT. 3.  et al. 2012. Social integration and diabetes management among rural older adults. J. Aging Health 24:899–922 [Google Scholar]
  4. Aronson RE, Oman RF. 4.  2004. Views on exercise and physical activity among rural-dwelling senior citizens. J. Rural Health 20:76–79 [Google Scholar]
  5. Barnes P, Curtis A, Downey LH, Ford L. 5.  2013. Community partners' perceptions in working with local health departments: an exploratory study. Int. J. Qual. Res. Serv. 1:35–52 [Google Scholar]
  6. Barnes PA, Curtis AB. 6.  2009. A national examination of partnerships among local health departments and faith communities in the United States. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 15:253–63 [Google Scholar]
  7. Barnett DJ, Thompson CB, Errett NA, Semon NL, Anderson MK. 7.  et al. 2012. Determinants of emergency response willingness in the local public health workforce by jurisdictional and scenario patterns: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 12:164 [Google Scholar]
  8. Baum NM, DesRoches C, Campbell EG, Goold SD. 8.  2011. Resource allocation in public health practice: a national survey of local public health officials. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 17:265–74 [Google Scholar]
  9. Beatty KB, Harris JK, Barnes P. 9.  2010. The role of inter-organizational partnerships in health services provision among rural, metropolitan, and urban local health departments. J. Rural Health 26:248–58 [Google Scholar]
  10. Beatty KE, Mayer J, Elliott M, Brownson RC, Abdulloeva S, Wojciehowski K. 10.  2016. Barriers and incentives to rural health department accreditation. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 22138–48
  11. Beatty KE, Mayer J, Elliott M, Brownson RC, Wojciehowski K. 11.  2015. Patterns and predictors of local health department accreditation in Missouri. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 21:116–25 [Google Scholar]
  12. Beck AJ, Boulton ML. 12.  2015. Trends and characteristics of the state and local public health workforce, 2010–2013. Am. J. Public Health 105:S303–10 [Google Scholar]
  13. Befort CA, Nazir N, Perri MG. 13.  2012. Prevalence of obesity among adults from rural and urban areas of the United States: findings from NHANES (2005–2008). J. Rural Health 28:392–97 [Google Scholar]
  14. Behringer B, Friedell GH. 14.  2006. Appalachia: Where place matters in health. Prev. Chronic Dis. 3:A113 [Google Scholar]
  15. Behringer B, Friedell GH, Dorgan KA, Hutson SP, Naney C. 15.  et al. 2007. Understanding the challenges of reducing cancer in Appalachia: addressing a place-based health disparity population. Calif. J. Health Promot. 5:40–49 [Google Scholar]
  16. Beitsch LM, Castrucci BC, Dilley A, Leider JP, Juliano C. 16.  et al. 2015. From patchwork to package: implementing foundational capabilities for state and local health departments. Am. J. Public Health 105:e7–10 [Google Scholar]
  17. Bekemeier B, Jones M. 17.  2010. Relationships between local public health agency functions and agency leadership and staffing: a look at nurses. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 16:E8–16 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bennett K, Olatosi B, Probst J. 18.  2008. Health Disparities: A Rural-Urban Chartbook Columbia: S. C. Off. Rural Res. Cent.
  19. Berkowitz B. 19.  2004. Rural public health service delivery: promising new directions. Am. J. Public Health 94:1678–81 [Google Scholar]
  20. Bernet PM. 20.  2007. Local public health agency funding: Money begets money. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 13:188–93 [Google Scholar]
  21. Bhandari MW, Scutchfield FD, Charnigo R, Riddell MC, Mays GP. 21.  2010. New data, same story? Revisiting studies on the relationship of local public health systems characteristics to public health performance. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 16:110–17 [Google Scholar]
  22. Borders TF, Booth BM. 22.  2007. Rural, suburban, and urban variations in alcohol consumption in the United States: findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J. Rural Health 23:314–21 [Google Scholar]
  23. Bradley EH, Curry LA, Ramanadhan S, Rowe L, Nembhard IM, Krumholz HM. 23.  2009. Research in action: using positive deviance to improve quality of health care. Implement Sci. 4:25 [Google Scholar]
  24. Brownson RC, Reis RS, Allen P, Duggan K, Fields R. 24.  et al. 2014. Understanding administrative evidence-based practices: findings from a survey of local health department leaders. Am. J. Prev. Med. 46:49–57 [Google Scholar]
  25. Calancie L, Leeman J, Jilcott Pitts SB, Khan LK, Fleischhacker S. 25.  et al. 2015. Nutrition-related policy and environmental strategies to prevent obesity in rural communities: a systematic review of the literature, 2002–2013. Prev. Chronic Dis. 12:E57 [Google Scholar]
  26. Carlton EL, Singh S. 26.  2015. Accreditation intent, community health assessments, and local health department–hospital collaboration. Front. Public Health Serv. Syst. Res. 4:1–6 [Google Scholar]
  27. Casey MM, Call KT, Klingner JM. 27.  2001. Are rural residents less likely to obtain recommended preventive healthcare services?. Am. J. Prev. Med. 21:182–88 [Google Scholar]
  28. 28. Cecil G. Sheps Cent. Health Serv. Res 2015. Rural hospital closures: January 2010 – present. N. C. Rural Health Res. Progr., Univ. N. C., Chapel Hill. https://www.shepscenter.unc.edu/programs-projects/rural-health/rural-hospital-closures/
  29. Cene CW, Akers AY, Lloyd SW, Albritton T, Hammond WP, Corbie-Smith G. 29.  2011. Understanding social capital and HIV risk in rural African American communities. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 26:737–44 [Google Scholar]
  30. Chan L, Hart LG, Goodman DC. 30.  2006. Geographic access to health care for rural Medicare beneficiaries. J. Rural Health 22:140–46 [Google Scholar]
  31. Chen LW, Xu L, Yu F, Jacobson J, Roberts S, Palm D. 31.  2012. The relationship between county variation in macro contextual factors and the performance of public health practice in regional public health systems in Nebraska. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 18:132–40 [Google Scholar]
  32. Corso LC, Wiesner PJ, Halverson PK, Brown CK. 32.  2000. Using the essential services as a foundation for performance measurement and assessment of local public health systems. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 6:1–18 [Google Scholar]
  33. Coughlin SS, Thompson TD. 33.  2004. Colorectal cancer screening practices among men and women in rural and nonrural areas of the United States, 1999. J. Rural Health 20:118–24 [Google Scholar]
  34. Doescher MP, Jackson JE, Jerant A, Hart LG. 34.  2006. Prevalence and trends in smoking: a national rural study. J. Rural Health 22:112–18 [Google Scholar]
  35. Eberhardt MS, Ingram DD, Makuc DM, Pamuk ER, Freid VM. 35.  et al. 2001. Urban and Rural Health Chartbook: Health, United States, 2001. Hyattsville, MD: Natl. Cent. Health Stat., US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Cent. Dis. Control Prev.
  36. Eng E. 36.  1993. The Save Our Sisters project. A social network strategy for reaching rural black women. Cancer 72:1071–77 [Google Scholar]
  37. Erwin PC. 37.  2008. The performance of local health departments: a review of the literature. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 14:E9–18 [Google Scholar]
  38. Eyler AA, Vest JR. 38.  2002. Environmental and policy factors related to physical activity in rural white women. Women Health 36:109–19 [Google Scholar]
  39. Fortney J, Mukherjee S, Curran G, Fortney S, Han X, Booth BM. 39.  2004. Factors associated with perceived stigma for alcohol use and treatment among at-risk drinkers. J. Behav. Health Serv. Res. 31:418–29 [Google Scholar]
  40. Freund CG, Liu Z. 40.  2000. Local health department capacity and performance in New Jersey. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 6:42–50 [Google Scholar]
  41. Gerzoff RB, Richards TB. 41.  1997. The education of local health department top executives. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 3:50–56 [Google Scholar]
  42. Gfroerer JC, Larson SL, Colliver JD. 42.  2007. Drug use patterns and trends in rural communities. J. Rural Health 23:10–15 [Google Scholar]
  43. Goldman N, Lin I, Weinstein M, Lin Y. 43.  2003. Evaluating the quality of self-reports of hypertension and diabetes. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 56:148–54 [Google Scholar]
  44. Gordon RL, Gerzoff RB, Richards TB. 44.  1997. Determinants of US local health department expenditures, 1992 through 1993. Am. J. Public Health 87:91–95 [Google Scholar]
  45. Hadley J. 45.  2003. Sicker and poorer—the consequences of being uninsured: a review of the research on the relationship between health insurance, medical care use, health, work, and income. Med. Care Res. Rev. 60:2 Suppl.3S–75 [Google Scholar]
  46. Hajat A, Cilenti D, Harrison LM, MacDonald PD, Pavletic D. 46.  et al. 2009. What predicts local public health agency performance improvement? A pilot study in North Carolina. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 15:E22–33 [Google Scholar]
  47. Hajat A, Stewart K, Hayes KL. 47.  2003. The local public health workforce in rural communities. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 9:481–88 [Google Scholar]
  48. Hale NL, Smith M, Hardin J, Brock-Martin A. 48.  2015. Rural populations and early periodic screening, diagnosis, and treatment services: challenges and opportunities for local public health departments. Am. J. Public Health 105:S330–36 [Google Scholar]
  49. Hall MT, Leukefeld CG, Havens JR. 49.  2013. Factors associated with high-frequency illicit methadone use among rural Appalachian drug users. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 39:241–46 [Google Scholar]
  50. Handler AS, Turnock BJ. 50.  1996. Local health department effectiveness in addressing the core functions of public health: essential ingredients. J. Public Health Policy 17:460–83 [Google Scholar]
  51. Hanlon JJ. 51.  1973. Is there a future for local health departments?. Health Serv. Rep. 88:898–901 [Google Scholar]
  52. Harris JK. 52.  2013. Communication ties across the national network of local health departments. Am. J. Prev. Med. 44:247–53 [Google Scholar]
  53. Harris JK, Allen P, Jacob RR, Elliott L, Brownson RC. 53.  2014. Information-seeking among chronic disease prevention staff in state health departments: use of academic journals. Prev. Chronic Dis. 11:E138 [Google Scholar]
  54. Harris JK, Mueller NL. 54.  2013. Policy activity and policy adoption in rural, suburban, and urban local health departments. J. Public Health Manag. Pract 19:E1–8 [Google Scholar]
  55. Harris JK, Mueller NL, Snider D. 55.  2013. Social media adoption in local health departments nationwide. Am. J. Public Health 103:1700–7 [Google Scholar]
  56. Hirsch JK. 56.  2006. A review of the literature on rural suicide. Crisis 27:189–99 [Google Scholar]
  57. Honoré PA, Simoes EJ, Moonesinghe R, Kirbey HC, Renner M. 57.  2004. Applying principles for outcomes-based contracting in a public health program. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 10:451–57 [Google Scholar]
  58. Hyde JK, Shortell SM. 58.  2012. The structure and organization of local and state public health agencies in the US: a systematic review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 42:S29–41 [Google Scholar]
  59. Ingram DD, Franco SJ. 59.  2012. NCHS urban-rural classification scheme for counties. Vital Health Stat. 2:1541–65 [Google Scholar]
  60. 60. Inst. Med., Comm. Public Health Strat. Improve Health 2012. For the Public's Health: Investing in a Healthier Future Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  61. 61. Inst. Med., Comm. Study Fut. Public Health 1988. The Future of Public Health. Rep 882 Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
  62. Jonas AB, Young AM, Oser CB, Leukefeld CG, Havens JR. 62.  2012. OxyContin® as currency: OxyContin® use and increased social capital among rural Appalachian drug users. Soc. Sci. Med. 74:1602–9 [Google Scholar]
  63. Keane C, Marx J, Ricci E. 63.  2001. Privatization and the scope of public health: a national survey of local health department directors. Am. J. Public Health 91:611–17 [Google Scholar]
  64. Keane C, Marx J, Ricci E. 64.  2002. The privatization of environmental health services: a national survey of practices and perspectives in local health departments. Public Health Rep. 117:62–68 [Google Scholar]
  65. Keane C, Marx J, Ricci E. 65.  2002. Services privatized in local health departments: a national survey of practices and perspectives. Am. J. Public Health 92:1250–54 [Google Scholar]
  66. Kennedy VC. 66.  2003. A study of local public health system performance in Texas. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 9:183–87 [Google Scholar]
  67. Konkle KM. 67.  2009. Exploring Shared Services Collaboration in Wisconsin Local Public Health Agencies: A Review of the Literature Madison, WI: Inst. Wis. Health. http://www.instituteforwihealth.org/uploads/1/2/7/8/12783470/exploring_shared_services_literature_review_copy.pdf
  68. Lambert D, Gale JA, Hartley D. 68.  2008. Substance abuse by youth and young adults in rural America. J. Rural Health 24:221–28 [Google Scholar]
  69. Lampe S, Atherly A, VanRaemdonck L, Matthews K, Marshall J. 69.  2015. Minimum package of public health services: the adoption of core services in local public health agencies in Colorado. Am. J. Public Health 105:S252–59 [Google Scholar]
  70. Lantz PM, Lynch JW, House JS, Lepkowski JM, Mero RP. 70.  et al. 2001. Socioeconomic disparities in health change in a longitudinal study of US adults: the role of health-risk behaviors. Soc. Sci. Med. 53:29–40 [Google Scholar]
  71. Larson NI, Story MT, Nelson MC. 71.  2009. Neighborhood environments: disparities in access to healthy foods in the US. Am. J. Prev. Med. 36:74–81 [Google Scholar]
  72. Leep C. 72.  2007. Activities and Workforce of Small Town Rural Local Health Departments: Findings from the 2005 National Profile of Local Health Departments Study Washington, DC: Natl. Assoc. County City Health Off.
  73. Leeper JD, Meit M, Scutchfield FD, Sumaya CV, Wheat JR. 73.  2003. The case for rural public health programs. J. Rural Health 19:97–100 [Google Scholar]
  74. Leider JP, Castrucci BC, Hearne S, Russo P. 74.  2015. Organizational characteristics of large urban health departments. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 21:Suppl. 1S14–19 [Google Scholar]
  75. Leider JP, Shah GH, Castrucci BC, Leep CJ, Sellers K, Sprague JB. 75.  2014. Changes in public health workforce composition: proportion of part-time workforce and its correlates, 2008–2013. Am. J. Prev. Med. 47:S331–36 [Google Scholar]
  76. Leukefeld CG, Clayton RR, Myers JA. 76.  1993. Rural drug and alcohol treatment. Drugs Soc. 7:95–116 [Google Scholar]
  77. Liff JM, Chow WH, Greenberg RS. 77.  1991. Rural–urban differences in stage at diagnosis. Possible relationship to cancer screening. Cancer 67:1454–59 [Google Scholar]
  78. Lovelace K. 78.  2000. External collaboration and performance: North Carolina local public health departments, 1996. Public Health Rep. 115:350–57 [Google Scholar]
  79. Lovelace KA, Aronson RE, Rulison KL, Labban JD, Shah GH, Smith M. 79.  2015. Laying the groundwork for evidence-based public health: why some local health departments use more evidence-based decision-making practices than others. Am. J. Public Health 105:S189–97 [Google Scholar]
  80. Lu N, Samuels ME, Wilson R. 80.  2004. Socioeconomic differences in health: How much do health behaviors and health insurance coverage account for?. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 15:618–30 [Google Scholar]
  81. Luo H, Sotnikov S, Shah G. 81.  2013. Local health department activities to ensure access to care. Am. J. Prev. Med. 45:720–27 [Google Scholar]
  82. Lutfiyya MN, Chang LF, Lipsky MS. 82.  2012. A cross-sectional study of US rural adults' consumption of fruits and vegetables: Do they consume at least five servings daily?. BMC Public Health 12:280 [Google Scholar]
  83. Maley M, Warren BS, Devine CM. 83.  2010. Perceptions of the environment for eating and exercise in a rural community. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 42:185–91 [Google Scholar]
  84. Mauer BJ, Mason M, Brown B. 84.  2004. Application of quality measurement and performance standards to public health systems: Washington state's approach. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 10:330–37 [Google Scholar]
  85. Mayer JP, Konstant L, Wartman GC. 85.  1997. Typology of local health departments based on maternal and child health core functions. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 3:1–10 [Google Scholar]
  86. Mays GP, McHugh MC, Shim K, Perry N, Lenaway D. 86.  et al. 2006. Institutional and economic determinants of public health system performance. Am. J. Public Health 96:523–31 [Google Scholar]
  87. Mays GP, Smith SA. 87.  2009. Geographic variation in public health spending: correlates and consequences. Health Serv. Res. 44:1796–817 [Google Scholar]
  88. Meit M. 88.  2007. Public health in rural America. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 13:235–36 [Google Scholar]
  89. Meit M, Knudson A. 89.  2009. Why is rural public health important? A look to the future. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 15:185–90 [Google Scholar]
  90. Meit M, Knudson A, Gilbert T, Yu AT, Tanenbaum E. 90.  et al. 2014. The 2014 Update of the Rural-Urban Chartbook Grand Forks, ND: Rural Health Reform Policy Res. Cent.
  91. Miller K, Weber B. 91.  2014. Persistent Poverty Dynamics: Understanding Poverty Trends Over 50 Years Iowa City, IA: Rural Policy Res. Inst.
  92. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F. 92.  et al. 2003. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA 289:76–79 [Google Scholar]
  93. Murray CJ, Kulkarni S, Ezzati M. 93.  2005. Eight Americas: new perspectives on US health disparities. Am. J. Prev. Med. 29:4–10 [Google Scholar]
  94. Murray CJ, Kulkarni SC, Michaud C, Tomijima N, Bulzacchelli MT. 94.  et al. 2006. Eight Americas: investigating mortality disparities across races, counties, and race-counties in the United States. PLOS Med. 3:e260 [Google Scholar]
  95. 95. NACCHO (Natl. Assoc. County City Health Off.) 2006. 2005 National Profile of Local Health Departments Washington, DC: NACCHO
  96. 96. NACCHO (Natl. Assoc. County City Health Off.) 2009. 2008 National Profile of Local Health Departments Washington, DC: NACCHO
  97. 97. NACCHO (Natl. Assoc. County City Health Off.) 2011. 2010 National Profile of Local Health Departments Washington, DC: NACCHO
  98. 98. NACCHO (Natl. Assoc. County City Health Off.) 2014. 2013 National Profile of Local Health Departments Washington, DC: NACCHO
  99. 99. Natl. Cent. Health Workforce Anal 2014. Distribution of U.S. health care providers residing in rural and urban areas. Fact sheet, Health Resour. Serv. Adm. (HRSA), US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., Rockville, Md.
  100. Newkirk V, Damico A. 100.  2014. The Affordable Care Act and insurance coverage in rural areas Issue Brief, May 29, Kaiser Family Found., Menlo Park, Calif. http://kff.org/uninsured/issue-brief/the-affordable-care-act-and-insurance-coverage-in-rural-areas/
  101. Newman SJ, Ye J, Leep CJ. 101.  2014. Workforce turnover at local health departments: nature, characteristics, and implications. Am. J. Prev. Med. 47:S337–43 [Google Scholar]
  102. Nicholson LA. 102.  2008. Rural mental health. Adv. Psychiatr. Treat. 14:302–11 [Google Scholar]
  103. Noone J, Young HM. 103.  2009. Preparing daughters: the context of rurality on mothers' role in contraception. J. Rural Health 25:282–89 [Google Scholar]
  104. Olives C, Myerson R, Mokdad AH, Murray CJ, Lim SS. 104.  2013. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in United States counties, 2001–2009. PLOS ONE 8:e60308 [Google Scholar]
  105. Papathanasiou G, Zerva E, Zacharis I, Papandreou M, Papageorgiou E. 105.  et al. 2015. Association of high blood pressure with body mass index, smoking and physical activity in healthy young adults. Open Cardiovasc. Med. J. 9:5–17 [Google Scholar]
  106. Patterson PD, Moore CG, Probst JC, Shinogle JA. 106.  2004. Obesity and physical inactivity in rural America. J. Rural Health 20:151–59 [Google Scholar]
  107. Pennel C, Carpender S, Quiram B. 107.  2008. Rural health roundtables: a strategy for collaborative engagement in and between rural communities. Rural Remote Health 8:1054 [Google Scholar]
  108. Petersen RL, Saag K, Wallace RB, Doebbeling BN. 108.  1999. Influenza and pneumococcal vaccine receipt in older persons with chronic disease: a population-based study. Med. Care 37:502–9 [Google Scholar]
  109. 109. Public Health Funct. Steer. Comm 1994. Public Health in America. Washington, DC: Off. Dis. Prev. Health Promot.
  110. Reis JP, Bowles HR, Ainsworth BE, Dubose KD, Smith S, Laditka JN. 110.  2004. Nonoccupational physical activity by degree of urbanization and U.S. geographic region. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 36:2093–98 [Google Scholar]
  111. Reiter PL, Brewer NT, Gottlieb SL, McRee A, Smith JS. 111.  2009. Parents' health beliefs and HPV vaccination of their adolescent daughters. Soc. Sci. Med. 69:475–80 [Google Scholar]
  112. Richards TB, Rogers JJ, Christenson GM, Miller CA, Taylor MS, Cooper AD. 112.  1995. Evaluating local public health performance at a community level on a statewide basis. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 1:70–83 [Google Scholar]
  113. Rohrer JE, Dominguez D, Weaver M, Atchison CG, Merchant JA. 113.  1997. Assessing public health performance in Iowa's counties. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 3:10–15 [Google Scholar]
  114. Rosenblatt RA, Casey S, Richardson M. 114.  2002. Rural-urban differences in the public health workforce: local health departments in 3 rural western states. Am. J. Public Health 92:1102–5 [Google Scholar]
  115. Ross JS, Bradley EH, Busch SH. 115.  2006. Use of health care services by lower-income and higher-income uninsured adults. JAMA 295:2027–36 [Google Scholar]
  116. Sanderson B, Littleton M, Pulley LV. 116.  2002. Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity among rural, African American women. Women Health 36:73–88 [Google Scholar]
  117. Scutchfield FD, Knight EA, Kelly AV, Bhandari MW, Vasilescu IP. 117.  2004. Local public health agency capacity and its relationship to public health system performance. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 10:204–15 [Google Scholar]
  118. Scutchfield FD, Mays GP, Lurie N. 118.  2009. Applying health services research to public health practice: an emerging priority. Health Serv. Res. 44:1775–87 [Google Scholar]
  119. Shah GH, Leep CJ, Ye J, Sellers K, Liss-Levinson R, Williams KS. 119.  2015. Public health agencies' level of engagement in and perceived barriers to PHAB national voluntary accreditation. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 21:107–15 [Google Scholar]
  120. Singh GK, Siahpush M. 120.  2002. Increasing rural-urban gradients in US suicide mortality, 1970–1997. Am. J. Public Health 92:1161–67 [Google Scholar]
  121. Singh GK, Siahpush M. 121.  2006. Widening socioeconomic inequalities in US life expectancy, 1980–2000. Int. J. Epidemiol. 35:969–79 [Google Scholar]
  122. Smith KB, Humphreys JS, Wilson MG. 122.  2008. Addressing the health disadvantage of rural populations: How does epidemiological evidence inform rural health policies and research?. Aust. J. Rural Health 16:56–66 [Google Scholar]
  123. Smith ML, Dickerson JB, Wendel ML, Ahn S, Pulczinski JC. 123.  et al. 2013. The utility of rural and underserved designations in geospatial assessments of distance traveled to healthcare services: Implications for public health research and practice. J. Environ. Public Health doi: 10.1155/2013/960157
  124. Snowden M, Blankenau J, Nitzke J. 124.  2014. Healthcare affordability and access in Nebraska after the Great Recession. Great Plains Res. 24:23–35 [Google Scholar]
  125. Stamatakis KA, Leatherdale ST, Marx C, Yan Y, Colditz GA, Brownson RC. 125.  2012. Where is obesity prevention on the map? Distribution and predictors of local health department prevention activities in relation to county obesity prevalence in the US. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 18:402–11 [Google Scholar]
  126. Suen J, Christenson GM, Cooper A, Taylor M. 126.  1995. Analysis of the current status of public health practice in local health departments. Am. J. Prev. Med. 11:51–54 [Google Scholar]
  127. Suen J, Magruder C. 127.  2004. National profile: overview of capabilities and core functions of local public health jurisdictions in 47 states, the District of Columbia, and 3 US territories, 2000–2002. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 10:2–12 [Google Scholar]
  128. Tejeda S, Thompson B, Coronado GD, Martin DP. 128.  2009. Barriers and facilitators related to mammography use among lower educated Mexican women in the USA. Soc. Sci. Med. 68:832–39 [Google Scholar]
  129. Terris M. 129.  1978. Public health in the United States: the next 100 years. Public Health Rep. 93:602–6 [Google Scholar]
  130. Todd K, Westfall K, Doucette B, Ullrich F, Mueller K. 130.  2013. Causes and Consequences of Rural Pharmacy Closures: A Multi-Case Study Iowa City, IA: RUPRI Cent. Rural Health Policy Anal.
  131. Turner AM, Stavri Z, Revere D, Altamore R. 131.  2008. From the ground up: information needs of nurses in a rural public health department in Oregon. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 96:335–42 [Google Scholar]
  132. Turnock BJ, Handler A, Hall W, Lenihan DP, Vaughn E. 132.  1995. Capacity-building influences on Illinois local health departments. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 1:50–58 [Google Scholar]
  133. Turnock BJ, Handler A, Hall W, Potsic S, Nalluri R, Vaughn EH. 133.  1994. Local health department effectiveness in addressing the core functions of public health. Public Health Rep. 109:653–58 [Google Scholar]
  134. Turnock BJ, Handler AS. 134.  1997. From measuring to improving public health practice. Annu. Rev. Public Health 18:261–82 [Google Scholar]
  135. Turnock BJ, Handler AS, Miller CA. 135.  1998. Core function-related local public health practice effectiveness. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 4:26–32 [Google Scholar]
  136. 136. US Dep. Health Hum. Serv 2010. Multiple Chronic Conditions: A Strategic Framework Optimum Health and Quality of Life for Individuals with Multiple Chronic Conditions. Washington, DC: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv.
  137. Van Eenwyk J, Bensley L, Ossiander EM, Krueger K. 137.  2012. Comparison of examination-based and self-reported risk factors for cardiovascular disease, Washington state, 2006–2007. Prev. Chronic Dis. 9:e117 [Google Scholar]
  138. Vander Weg MW, Cunningham CL, Howren MB, Cai X. 138.  2011. Tobacco use and exposure in rural areas: findings from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Addict. Behav. 36:231–36 [Google Scholar]
  139. Wagstaff A. 139.  2002. Poverty and health sector inequalities. Bull. World Health Organ. 80:97–105 [Google Scholar]
  140. Walker RE, Keane CR, Burke JG. 140.  2010. Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: a review of food deserts literature. Health Place 16:876–84 [Google Scholar]
  141. Weaver KE, Palmer N, Lu L, Case LD, Geiger AM. 141.  2013. Rural–urban differences in health behaviors and implications for health status among US cancer survivors. Cancer Causes Control 24:1481–90 [Google Scholar]
  142. Wells M. 142.  2009. Resilience in rural community-dwelling older adults. J. Rural Health 25:415–19 [Google Scholar]
  143. Williams EC, McFarland LV, Nelson KM. 143.  2012. Alcohol consumption among urban, suburban, and rural Veterans Affairs outpatients. J. Rural Health 28:202–10 [Google Scholar]
  144. Yang Y, Bekemeier B. 144.  2013. Using more activities to address health disparities: local health departments and their “top executives.”. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 19:153–61 [Google Scholar]
  145. Yankeelov PA, Faul AC, D'Ambrosio JG, Collins WL, Gordon B. 145.  2015. “Another day in paradise”: a photovoice journey of rural older adults living with diabetes. J. Appl. Gerontol. 34:199–218 [Google Scholar]
  146. Zahner SJ, Vandermause R. 146.  2003. Local health department performance: compliance with state statutes and rules. J. Public Health Manag. Pract. 9:25–34 [Google Scholar]
  147. Zhang P, Tao G, Anderson LA. 147.  2003. Differences in access to health care services among adults in rural America by rural classification categories and age. Aust. J. Rural Health 11:64–72 [Google Scholar]
  148. Zhang X, Luo H, Gregg EW, Mukhtar Q, Rivera M. 148.  et al. 2010. Obesity prevention and diabetes screening at local health departments. Am. J. Public Health 100:1434–41 [Google Scholar]
  149. Ziller E, Lenardson J, Coburn A. 149.  2015. Rural implications of Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act SHARE Issue Brief, SHADAC, Minneapolis, Minn.
  150. Zimmerman RK, Santibanez TA, Janosky JE, Fine MJ, Raymund M. 150.  et al. 2003. What affects influenza vaccination rates among older patients? An analysis from inner-city, suburban, rural, and Veterans Affairs practices. Am. J. Med. 114:31–38 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122755
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122755
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error