Figure 1: Taxonomy of HCoVs: the updated classification scheme of HCoV and other coronaviruses. The six known HCoVs are in blue. Abbreviations: BtCoV, bat coronavirus; BuCoV, bulbul coronavirus; HCoV,...

Figure 2: Genome structure of human coronaviruses (HCoVs). Schematic diagram showing the genome structure of six known HCoVs (not to scale). The 5′-cap structure (5′-C) and 3′-polyadenylation (AnAOH-3...

Figure 3: Replication cycle of human coronaviruses (HCoVs). Schematic diagram showing the general replication cycle of HCoVs. Infection starts with the attachment of HCoVs to the cognate cellular rece...

Figure 4: Induction and modulation of autophagy by HCoV infection. Schematic diagram showing the signaling pathway of autophagy and the modulatory mechanisms utilized by HCoV. Viruses and viral compon...

Figure 5: Apoptosis induced by HCoV infection and modulatory mechanisms. Schematic diagram showing the signaling pathway of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis induction and the modulatory mechanisms ut...

Figure 6: Induction and modulation of unfolded protein response by HCoV infection. Schematic diagram showing the three branches of UPR signaling pathway activated and regulated by HCoV infection. Viru...

Figure 7: Activation and modulation of MAPK signaling pathways by HCoV infection. Schematic diagram showing the activation and modulation of MAPK signaling pathway by HCoV infection. Viruses and viral...

Figure 8: Type I interferon induction and signaling during HCoV infection and modulatory mechanisms. Schematic diagram showing the induction and signaling pathways of type I interferon during HCoV inf...

Figure 1: Scheme of N protein from different CoVs. The organization of N protein from four representative CoVs of genera α (TGEV), β (MHV and SARS-CoV), and γ (IBV) is indicated. Conserved predicted s...

Figure 2: Three-step working model of CoV transcription. (I) 5′-3′ complex formation step. Proteins binding the 5′ and 3′ end TGEV sequences are represented by ellipsoids. Leader sequence is indicated...

Figure 3: RNA chaperone involvement in template switching during CoV transcription. Left panel: Scheme of RNA chaperone activity. Right panel: Template switching step and elements involved. RNA chaper...

Figure 1: The Vibrio fischeri LuxI/LuxR quorum sensing circuit. There are five luciferase structural genes (luxCDABE) and two regulatory genes (luxR and luxI) required for quorum sensing–controlled l...

Figure 2: The Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasI/LasR-RhlI/RhlR quorum sensing system. P. aeruginosa uses two LuxI/LuxR-like autoinducer-sensor pairs for quorum sensing regulation of a variety of genes. The...

Figure 3: LuxI-directed biosynthesis of acylated homoserine lactone autoinducers. The LuxI family of proteins uses S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) and specific acyl-acyl carrier proteins (acyl-ACP) as sub...

Figure 4: A general model for peptide-mediated quorum sensing in Gram-positive bacteria. In Gram-positive bacteria, a peptide signal precursor locus is translated into a precursor protein (black and ...

Figure 5: Quorum sensing control of competence and sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. B. subtilis employs two processed peptide autoinducers, ComX (gray circles) and CSF (white diamonds), to regulate ...

Figure 6: The hybrid HSL-two-component quorum sensing circuit of Vibrio harveyi. V. harveyi uses two autoinducers to regulate density-dependent light production. AI-1 is N-(3-hydroxybutanoyl)-homoser...

Figure 1: Mutational space. This plot shows all types of mutations or horizontal gene transfer events that can generate a specific drug resistance and their characteristics with regard to rate of appe...

Figure 2: Epistasis constrains evolutionary trajectories. (a) General outline of terminology used to describe effects of epistatic interactions between different genes/mutations. The interactions are ...

Figure 3: Coselection affects evolutionary trajectories. Colored bars represent genes with different selectable phenotypes (orange, green, and blue). The height of a bar represents its intrinsic fitne...

Figure 4: Population bottlenecks affect evolutionary trajectories. Orange arrows represent lineages of high-frequency mutants with relatively low fitness. Blue arrows represent low-frequency mutants w...