1932

Abstract

Star and planet formation are the complex outcomes of gravitational collapse and angular momentum transport mediated by protostellar and protoplanetary disks. In this review, we focus on the role of gravitational instability in this process. We begin with a brief overview of the observational evidence for massive disks that might be subject to gravitational instability and then highlight the diverse ways in which the instability manifests itself in protostellar and protoplanetary disks: the generation of spiral arms, small-scale turbulence-like density fluctuations, and fragmentation of the disk itself. We present the analytic theory that describes the linear growth phase of the instability supplemented with a survey of numerical simulations that aim to capture the nonlinear evolution. We emphasize the role of thermodynamics and large-scale infall in controlling the outcome of the instability. Despite apparent controversies in the literature, we show a remarkable level of agreement between analytic predictions and numerical results. In the next part of our review, we focus on the astrophysical consequences of the instability. We show that the disks most likely to be gravitationally unstable are young and relatively massive compared with their host star, /≥0.1. They will develop quasi-stable spiral arms that process infall from the background cloud. Although instability is less likely at later times, once infall becomes less important, the manifestations of the instability are more varied. In this regime, the disk thermodynamics, often regulated by stellar irradiation, dictates the development and evolution of the instability. In some cases the instability may lead to fragmentation into bound companions. These companions are more likely to be brown dwarfs or stars than planetary mass objects. Finally, we highlight open questions related to the development of a turbulent cascade in thin disks and the role of mode-mode coupling in setting the maximum angular momentum transport rate in thick disks.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023307
2016-09-19
2024-12-07
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/astro/54/1/annurev-astro-081915-023307.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023307&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adachi I, Hayashi C, Nakazawa K. 1976. Prog. Theor. Phys. 56:1756–71 [Google Scholar]
  2. Adams FC, Proszkow EM, Fatuzzo M, Myers PC. 2006. Ap. J. 641:504–25 [Google Scholar]
  3. Adams FC, Ruden SP, Shu FH. 1989. Ap. J. 347:959–76 [Google Scholar]
  4. ALMA Partnership, Brogan CL, Pérez LM, Hunter TR. et al. 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 808L3 [Google Scholar]
  5. Andrews SM, Rosenfeld KA, Kraus AL, Wilner DJ. 2013. Ap. J. 771:129 [Google Scholar]
  6. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Espaillat C. et al. 2011. Ap. J. 732:42 [Google Scholar]
  7. Andrews SM, Wilner DJ, Hughes AM, Qi C, Dullemond CP. 2009. Ap. J. 700:1502–23 [Google Scholar]
  8. Ansdell M, Williams JP, van der Marel N, Carpenter JM, Guidi G. et al. 2016. Ap. J. Accepted arXiv:1604.05719 [Google Scholar]
  9. Armitage PJ, Livio M, Pringle JE. 2001. MNRAS 324:705–11 [Google Scholar]
  10. Audard M, Ábrahám P, Dunham MM. et al. 2014. Protostars and Planets VI H Beuther, R Klessen, C Dullemond, T Henning 387–410 Tucson:Univ. Ariz. Press [Google Scholar]
  11. Bai XN. 2015. Ap. J. 798:84 [Google Scholar]
  12. Balbus SA, Hawley JF. 1994. MNRAS 266:769 [Google Scholar]
  13. Balbus SA, Hawley JF. 1998. Rev. Mod. Phys. 70:1 [Google Scholar]
  14. Balbus SA, Papaloizou. 1999. Ap. J. 521:650 [Google Scholar]
  15. Baraffe I, Chabrier G, Allard F, Hauschildt PH. 2002. Astron. Astrophys. 382:563–72 [Google Scholar]
  16. Baraffe I, Homeier D, Allard F, Chabrier G. 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 577:A42 [Google Scholar]
  17. Baruteau C, Meru F, Paardekooper SJ. 2011. MNRAS 416:1971–82 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bate MR. 2012. MNRAS 419:3115–46 [Google Scholar]
  19. Bate MR, Burkert A. 1997. MNRAS 288:1060–72 [Google Scholar]
  20. Bate MR, Lodato G, Pringle JE. 2010. MNRAS 401:1505–13 [Google Scholar]
  21. Bell KR, Lin DNC. 1994. Ap. J. 427:987–1004 [Google Scholar]
  22. Benisty M, Juhasz A, Boccaletti A. et al. 2015. Astron. Astrophys. 578:L6 [Google Scholar]
  23. Bergin EA, Cleeves LI, Gorti U. et al. 2013. Nature 493:644–46 [Google Scholar]
  24. Bertin G. 1997. Ap. J. Lett. 478:L71–74 [Google Scholar]
  25. Bertin G. 2000. Dynamics of Galaxies Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  26. Bertin G, Lodato G. 1999. Astron. Astrophys. 350:694–704 [Google Scholar]
  27. Bertin G, Lodato G. 2001. Astron. Astrophys. 370:342–50 [Google Scholar]
  28. Binney J, Tremaine S. 1987. Galactic Dynamics Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press747 [Google Scholar]
  29. Boley AC, Durisen RH, Nordlund Å, Lord J. 2007. Ap. J. 665:1254–67 [Google Scholar]
  30. Boley AC, Hayfield T, Mayer L, Durisen RH. 2010. Icarus 207:509–16 [Google Scholar]
  31. Boley AC, Helled R, Payne MJ. 2011. Ap. J. 735:30 [Google Scholar]
  32. Boley AC, Mejía AC, Durisen RH. et al. 2006. Ap. J. 651:517–34 [Google Scholar]
  33. Bonnor WB. 1956. MNRAS 116:351 [Google Scholar]
  34. Booth RA, Sijacki D, Clarke CJ. 2015. MNRAS 452:3932–47 [Google Scholar]
  35. Boss AP. 1997. Science 276:1836–39 [Google Scholar]
  36. Boss AP. 2006. Ap. J. 641:1148–61 [Google Scholar]
  37. Britsch M, Clarke CJ, Lodato G. 2008. MNRAS 385:1067–75 [Google Scholar]
  38. Bryden G, Chen X, Lin DNC, Nelson RP, Papaloizou JCB. 1999. Ap. J. 514:344–67 [Google Scholar]
  39. Caselli P, Myers PC. 1995. Ap. J. 446:665 [Google Scholar]
  40. Cesaroni R, Galli D, Lodato G, Walmsley CM, Zhang Q. 2007. Protostars and Planets V B Reipurth, D Jewitt, K Keil 197–212 Tucson: Univ. Ariz. Press [Google Scholar]
  41. Chiang EI, Goldreich P. 1997. Ap. J. 490:368–76 [Google Scholar]
  42. Clarke CJ. 2009. MNRAS 396:1066–74 [Google Scholar]
  43. Clarke CJ, Harper-Clark E, Lodato G. 2007. MNRAS 381:1543–47 [Google Scholar]
  44. Clarke CJ, Lodato G. 2009. MNRAS 398:L6–10 [Google Scholar]
  45. Cossins P, Lodato G, Clarke CJ. 2009. MNRAS 393:1157–73 [Google Scholar]
  46. Cossins P, Lodato G, Clarke CJ. 2010a. MNRAS 401:2587–98 [Google Scholar]
  47. Cossins P, Lodato G, Testi L. 2010b. MNRAS 407:181–88 [Google Scholar]
  48. D'Antona F, Mazzitelli I. 1997. Mem. Soc. Astron. Ital. 68:807 [Google Scholar]
  49. Dipierro G, Lodato G, Testi L, de Gregorio Monsalvo I. 2014. MNRAS 444:1919–29 [Google Scholar]
  50. Dipierro G, Pinilla P, Lodato G, Testi L. 2015. MNRAS 451:974–86 [Google Scholar]
  51. Dong R, Hall C, Rice K, Chiang E. 2015. Ap. J. Lett. 812:L32 [Google Scholar]
  52. Duchêne G, Kraus A. 2013. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 51:269–310 [Google Scholar]
  53. Duffell PC, Haiman Z, MacFadyen AI, D'Orazio DJ, Farris BD. 2014. Ap. J. Lett. 792L10 [Google Scholar]
  54. Dunham MM, Vorobyov EI, Arce HG. 2014. MNRAS 444:887–901 [Google Scholar]
  55. Dupuy TJ, Liu MC. 2011. Ap. J. 733:122 [Google Scholar]
  56. Durisen RH, Boss AP, Mayer L. et al. 2007. Protostars and Planets V B Reipurth, D Jewitt, K Keil 607–22 Tucson: Univ. Ariz. Press [Google Scholar]
  57. Ebert R. 1955. Z. Astrophys. 37:217 [Google Scholar]
  58. Eisner JA. 2012. Ap. J. 755:23 [Google Scholar]
  59. Eisner JA, Plambeck RL, Carpenter JM. et al. 2008. Ap. J. 683:304–20 [Google Scholar]
  60. Enoch ML, Evans NJ, Sargent AI, Glenn J. 2009. Ap. J. 692:973–97 [Google Scholar]
  61. Fan Z, Lou YQ. 1999. MNRAS 307:645–58 [Google Scholar]
  62. Fielding DB, McKee CF, Socrates A, Cunningham AJ, Klein RI. 2015. MNRAS 450:3306–18 [Google Scholar]
  63. Forgan D, Rice K. 2011. MNRAS 417:1928–37 [Google Scholar]
  64. Forgan D, Rice K. 2013. MNRAS 432:3168–85 [Google Scholar]
  65. Frank J, King A, Raine DJ. 2002. Accretion Power in Astrophysics Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press398, 3rd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  66. Fromang S, Balbus SA, De Villiers JP. 2004a. Ap. J. 616:357 [Google Scholar]
  67. Fromang S, Balbus SA, Terquem C, De Villiers JP. 2004b. Ap. J. 616:364 [Google Scholar]
  68. Galvagni M, Hayfield T, Boley A. et al. 2012. MNRAS 427:1725–40 [Google Scholar]
  69. Gammie CF. 2001. Ap. J. 553:174–83 [Google Scholar]
  70. Gibbons PG, Mamatsashvili GR, Rice WKM. 2014. MNRAS 442:361–71 [Google Scholar]
  71. Gibbons PG, Rice WKM, Mamatsashvili GR. 2012. MNRAS 426:1444–54 [Google Scholar]
  72. Goldreich P, Ward WR. 1973. Ap. J. 183:1051–62 [Google Scholar]
  73. Goodman AA, Benson PJ, Fuller GA, Myers PC. 1993. Ap. J. 406:528–47 [Google Scholar]
  74. Gullbring E, Hartmann L, Briceno C, Calvet N. 1998. Ap. J. 492:323–41 [Google Scholar]
  75. Harsono D, Alexander RD, Levin Y. 2011. MNRAS 413:423–33 [Google Scholar]
  76. Hartmann L, Kenyon SJ. 1996. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 34:207–40 [Google Scholar]
  77. Hartmann L, Herczeg G, Calvet N. 2016. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 54:135–80 [Google Scholar]
  78. Hohl F. 1971. Ap. J. 168:343 [Google Scholar]
  79. Hohl F. 1973. Ap. J. 184:353 [Google Scholar]
  80. Hopkins PF, Christiansen JL. 2013. Ap. J. 776:48 [Google Scholar]
  81. Johansen A, Youdin A, Klahr H. 2009. Ap. J. 697:1269–89 [Google Scholar]
  82. Johnson BM, Gammie CF. 2003. Ap. J. 597:131–41 [Google Scholar]
  83. Johnston KG, Keto E, Robitaille TP, Wood K. 2011. MNRAS 415:2953–68 [Google Scholar]
  84. Kenyon SJ, Hartmann L. 1987. Ap. J. 323:714–33 [Google Scholar]
  85. Klaassen PD, Wilson CD, Keto ER. et al. 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 530:A53 [Google Scholar]
  86. Kratter KM, Matzner CD. 2006. MNRAS 373:1563–76 [Google Scholar]
  87. Kratter KM, Matzner CD, Krumholz MR. 2008. Ap. J. 681:375–90 [Google Scholar]
  88. Kratter KM, Matzner CD, Krumholz MR, Klein RI. 2010a. Ap. J. 708:1585–97 [Google Scholar]
  89. Kratter KM, Murray-Clay RA. 2011. Ap. J. 740:1 [Google Scholar]
  90. Kratter KM, Murray-Clay RA, Youdin AN. 2010b. Ap. J. 710:1375–86 [Google Scholar]
  91. Kraus AL, Ireland MJ, Martinache F, Hillenbrand LA. 2011. Ap. J. 731:8 [Google Scholar]
  92. Krumholz MR, Klein RI, McKee CF. 2007. Ap. J. 665:478–91 [Google Scholar]
  93. Krumholz MR, Klein RI, McKee CF, Offner SSR, Cunningham AJ. 2009. Science 323:754–57 [Google Scholar]
  94. Laibe G, Price DJ. 2012. MNRAS 420:2345–64 [Google Scholar]
  95. Laibe G, Price DJ. 2014. MNRAS 444:1940–56 [Google Scholar]
  96. Larson RB. 1969. MNRAS 145:271 [Google Scholar]
  97. Larson RB. 1981. MNRAS 194:809–26 [Google Scholar]
  98. Lau YY, Bertin G. 1978. Ap. J. 226:508 [Google Scholar]
  99. Laughlin G, Bodenheimer P. 1994. Ap. J. 436:335 [Google Scholar]
  100. Laughlin G, Korchagin V, Adams FC. 1997. Ap. J. 477:410–23 [Google Scholar]
  101. Laughlin G, Korchagin V, Adams FC. 1998. Ap. J. 504:945–66 [Google Scholar]
  102. Laughlin G, Ròżyczka M. 1996. Ap. J. 456:279–91 [Google Scholar]
  103. Lin CC, Shu FH. 1964. Ap. J. 140:646 [Google Scholar]
  104. Lin DNC, Papaloizou J. 1986. Ap. J. 309:846–57 [Google Scholar]
  105. Lin DNC, Papaloizou JCB. 1993. Protostars and Planets III Levy EH, Lunine JI. 749–835 Tucson: Univ. Ariz. Press [Google Scholar]
  106. Lin DNC, Pringle JE. 1987. MNRAS 225:607 [Google Scholar]
  107. Lin DNC, Pringle JE. 1990. Ap. J. 358:515 [Google Scholar]
  108. Lin MK, Kratter KM. 2016. Ap. J. 824:91 [Google Scholar]
  109. Lissauer JJ. 1987. Icarus 69:249–65 [Google Scholar]
  110. Lissauer JJ, Hubickyj O, D'Angelo G, Bodenheimer P. 2009. Icarus 199:338–50 [Google Scholar]
  111. Lodato G. 2007. Riv. Nuovo Cim. 30:293 [Google Scholar]
  112. Lodato G, Clarke CJ. 2011. MNRAS 413:2735–40 [Google Scholar]
  113. Lodato G, Meru F, Clarke CJ, Rice WKM. 2007. MNRAS 374:590 [Google Scholar]
  114. Lodato G, Natarajan P. 2006. MNRAS 371:1813 [Google Scholar]
  115. Lodato G, Price DJ. 2010. MNRAS 405:1212–26 [Google Scholar]
  116. Lodato G, Rice WKM. 2004. MNRAS 351:630 [Google Scholar]
  117. Lodato G, Rice WKM. 2005. MNRAS 358:1489–500 [Google Scholar]
  118. Looney LW, Mundy LG, Welch WJ. 2000. Ap. J. 529:477–98 [Google Scholar]
  119. Lynden-Bell D, Kalnajs AJ. 1972. MNRAS 157:1 [Google Scholar]
  120. Lynden-Bell D, Pringle JE. 1974. MNRAS 168:603 [Google Scholar]
  121. Machida MN, Inutsuka Si, Matsumoto T. 2010. 7241006–20
  122. Mann RK, Andrews SM, Eisner JA. et al. 2015. Ap. J. 802:77 [Google Scholar]
  123. Martin RG, Lubow SH. 2011. Ap. J. Lett. 740:L6 [Google Scholar]
  124. Matsumoto T, Hanawa T. 2003. Ap. J. 595:913–34 [Google Scholar]
  125. Matzner CD, Levin Y. 2005. Ap. J. 628:817–31 [Google Scholar]
  126. Maury AJ, André P, Hennebelle P. et al. 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 512:A40 [Google Scholar]
  127. Mayer L, Wadsley J, Quinn T, Stadel J. 2005. MNRAS 363:641 [Google Scholar]
  128. McKee CF, Tan JC. 2003. Ap. J. 585:850–71 [Google Scholar]
  129. Mejia AC, Durisen RH, Pickett MK, Cai K. 2005. Ap. J. 619:1098 [Google Scholar]
  130. Meru F, Bate MR. 2011a. MNRAS 410:559–72 [Google Scholar]
  131. Meru F, Bate MR. 2011b. MNRAS 411:L1–5 [Google Scholar]
  132. Meru F, Bate MR. 2012. MNRAS 427:2022–46 [Google Scholar]
  133. Michael S, Steiman-Cameron TY, Durisen RH, Boley AC. 2012. Ap. J. 746:98 [Google Scholar]
  134. Miotello A, Testi L, Lodato G. et al. 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 567:A32 [Google Scholar]
  135. Muñoz DJ, Kratter K, Vogelsberger M, Hernquist L, Springel V. 2015. MNRAS 446:2010–29 [Google Scholar]
  136. Muto T, Grady CA, Hashimoto J. et al. 2012. Ap. J. Lett. 748:L22 [Google Scholar]
  137. Najita JR, Kenyon SJ. 2014. MNRAS 445:3315–29 [Google Scholar]
  138. Natta A, Testi L, Neri R, Shepherd DS, Wilner DJ. 2004. Astron. Astrophys. 416:179–86 [Google Scholar]
  139. Nayakshin S. 2010. MNRAS 408:L36–40 [Google Scholar]
  140. Nayakshin S. 2015. MNRAS 446:459–69 [Google Scholar]
  141. Nayakshin S, Cha SH. 2013. MNRAS 435:2099–108 [Google Scholar]
  142. Nayakshin S, Helled R, Boley AC. 2014. MNRAS 440:3797–808 [Google Scholar]
  143. Nelson AF. 2000. Ap. J. Lett. 537:L65 [Google Scholar]
  144. Nelson AF. 2006. MNRAS 373:1039 [Google Scholar]
  145. Offner SSR, Klein RI, McKee CF, Krumholz MR. 2009. Ap. J. 703:131–49 [Google Scholar]
  146. Offner SSR, Kratter KM, Matzner CD, Krumholz MR, Klein RI. 2010. Ap. J. 725:1485–94 [Google Scholar]
  147. Ostriker JP, Peebles PJE. 1973. Ap. J. 186:467 [Google Scholar]
  148. Paardekooper SJ. 2012. MNRAS 421:3286–99 [Google Scholar]
  149. Paardekooper SJ, Baruteau C, Meru F. 2011. MNRAS 416:L65–69 [Google Scholar]
  150. Paczyński B. 1978. Acta Astron. 28:91 [Google Scholar]
  151. Pérez LM, Carpenter JM, Chandler CJ. et al. 2012. Ap. J. Lett. 760:L17 [Google Scholar]
  152. Pollack JB, Hubickyj O, Bodenheimer P. et al. 1996. Icarus 124:62–85 [Google Scholar]
  153. Pollack JB, McKay CP, Christofferson BM. 1985. Icarus 64:471–92 [Google Scholar]
  154. Price DJ, Laibe G. 2015. MNRAS 451:813–26 [Google Scholar]
  155. Pringle JE. 1981. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 19:137–62 [Google Scholar]
  156. Rafikov RR. 2005. Ap. J. Lett. 621:L69–72 [Google Scholar]
  157. Rafikov RR. 2009. Ap. J. 704:281–91 [Google Scholar]
  158. Rafikov RR. 2011. Ap. J. 727:86 [Google Scholar]
  159. Rafikov RR. 2015. Ap. J. 804:62 [Google Scholar]
  160. Raghavan D, McAlister HA, Henry TJ. et al. 2010. Ap. J. Suppl. 190:1–42 [Google Scholar]
  161. Rees MJ. 1976. MNRAS 176:483 [Google Scholar]
  162. Ricci L, Testi L, Natta A. et al. 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 512:A15 [Google Scholar]
  163. Rice WKM, Armitage PJ, Mamatsashvili GR, Lodato G, Clarke CJ. 2011. MNRAS 418:1356–62 [Google Scholar]
  164. Rice WKM, Lodato G, Armitage PJ. 2005. MNRAS 364:L56 [Google Scholar]
  165. Rice WKM, Lodato G, Pringle JE, Armitage PJ, Bonnell IA. 2004. MNRAS 355:543 [Google Scholar]
  166. Rice WKM, Lodato G, Pringle JE, Armitage PJ, Bonnell IA. 2006. MNRAS 372:L9 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023307
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081915-023307
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error