1932

Abstract

A growing body of research reveals that transgender people are disproportionately in contact with the criminal legal system, wherein they experience considerable discrimination, violence, and other harms. To better understand transgender people's involvement in this system, this article synthesizes research from criminology, transgender studies, and related fields as well as empirical findings produced outside of academe, to conceptualize a “transgender criminal legal system nexus.” This article examines historical and contemporary criminalization of transgender people; differential system contact and attendant experiences associated with police contact, judicial decision-making, and incarceration; and pathways to system involvement for transgender people. The analytic focus is on cultural logics related to institutionalized conceptualizations of gender, discriminatory people-processing in various domains of the criminal legal system, and institutionally produced disparities for transgender people involved in the criminal legal system, especially transgender women of color. The article concludes with a discussion of directions for future research, including a focus on administrative violence, organizational sorting, intersectionality, and measurement challenges.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-040947
2024-01-26
2024-10-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/7/1/annurev-criminol-022222-040947.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-040947&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aggarwal NK, Consavage KE, Dhanuka I, Clement KW, Shahbazian K, Bouey JH. 2021. Health and health care access barriers among transgender women engaged in sex work: a synthesis of U.S.-based studies published 2005–2019. LGBT Health 8:11125
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Ashley F. 2018a. Don't be so hateful: the insufficiency of anti-discrimination and hate crime laws in improving trans well-being. Univ. Tor. Law J. 68:1136
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Ashley F. 2018b. Genderfucking non-disclosure: sexual fraud, transgender bodies, and identities. Dalhousie Law J 41:233977
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Ashley F. 2022.. “ Trans” is my gender modality: a modest terminological proposal. Trans Bodies, Trans Selves: A Resource by and for Transgender Communities L Erickson-Schroth 2224. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Asquith NL, Dwyer A, Simpson P. 2017. A queer criminal career. Curr. Issues Crim. Justice 29:216780
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Augustine D, Barragan M, Chesnut K, Pifer NA, Reiter K, Strong JD. 2021. Window dressing: possibilities and limitations of incremental changes in solitary confinement. Health Justice 9:121
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Avalos S. 2022. The trans experience with the criminal legal system. Crime Delinquency In press. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287221134914
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  8. Baars G. 2019. Queer cases unmake gendered law, or, fucking law's gendering function. Aust. Fem. Law J. 45:11562
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Ball M, Buist CL, Woods JB. 2014. Introduction to the special issue on queer/ing criminology: new directions and frameworks. Crit. Criminol. 22:114
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bates N, Chin M, Becker T, eds. 2022. Measuring Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Beatty LG, Snell TL. 2021. Profile of prison inmates, 2016 Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 255037 US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/ppi16.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Beauchamp T. 2019. Going Stealth: Transgender Politics and U.S. Surveillance Practices Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Beck A. 2014. Sexual victimization in prisons and jails reported by inmates 2011–2012: supplemental tables: prevalence of sexual victimization among transgender adult inmates Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 241399 US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://bjs.ojp.gov/redirect-legacy/content/pub/pdf/svpjri1112_st.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Beck A. 2015. Use of restrictive housing in U.S. prisons and jails, 2011–12 Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 249209 US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/urhuspj1112_sum.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bendery J. 2012. Joe Biden: transgender discrimination is ‘the civil rights issue of our time. .’ HuffPost Oct. 31. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/joe-biden-transgender-rights_n_2047275
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Billard TJ. 2019.. “ Passing” and the politics of deception: transgender bodies, cisgender aesthetics, and the policing of inconspicuous marginal identities. The Palgrave Handbook of Deceptive Communication T Docan-Morgan 46377. New York: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Braunstein M. 2017. The five stages of LGBTQ discrimination and its effects on mass incarceration. Univ. Miami Race Soc. Justice Law Rev. 7:1129
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Buist CL, Lenning E. 2023. Queer Criminology London: Routledge. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Buist CL, Stone C. 2014. Transgender victims and offenders: failures of the United States criminal justice system and the necessity of queer criminology. Crit. Criminol. 22:13547
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Calif. Dep. Justice Civ. Rights Enforc. Sect 2022. Racial & identity profiling advisory board: annual report 2022 Rep. Calif. Dep. Justice Civ. Rights Enforc. Sect. Sacramento, CA: https://oag.ca.gov/system/files/media/ripa-board-report-2022.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Capous-Desyllas M, Loy V. 2020. Navigating intersecting identities, self-representation, and relationships: a qualitative study with trans sex workers living and working in Los Angeles, CA. Sociol. Inq. 90:33970
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Carrillo A. 2022.. “ PREA is a joke”: a case study of how trans PREA standards are(n't) enforced. Queering Criminology in Theory and Praxis: Reimagining Justice in the Criminal Legal System and Beyonded. CL Buist, LK Semprevivo 7082. Bristol, UK: Bristol Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Cent. Am. Prog., Mov. Adv. Proj 2016. Unjust: how the broken criminal justice system fails transgender people Rep. Mov. Adv. Proj. Boulder, CO: https://www.lgbtmap.org/policy-and-issue-analysis/criminal-justice-trans
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Clark KA, Hughto JMW, Pachankis JE. 2017.. “ What's the right thing to do?” correctional healthcare providers’ knowledge, attitudes and experiences caring for transgender inmates. Soc. Sci. Med. 193:8089
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Coggeshall JM. 1988.. “ Ladies” behind bars: a liminal gender as cultural mirror. Anthropol. Today 4:468
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Cox J, Daquin JC, Neal TMS. 2022. Discretionary prosecutorial decision-making: gender, sexual orientation, and bias in intimate partner violence. Crim. Justice Behav. 49:111699719
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Currah P. 2022. Sex Is as Sex Does: Governing Transgender Identity New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Currah P, Juang RM, Minter S. 2006. Transgender Rights Minneapolis, MN: Univ. Minn. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Currah P, Minter S. 2000. Unprincipled exclusions: the struggle to achieve judicial and legislative equality for transgender people. William Mary J. Women Law 7:13766
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Dangaran D. 2021. Abolition as lodestar: rethinking prison reform from a trans perspective. Harv. J. Law Gend. 44:1161216
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Dolovich S. 2011. Strategic segregation in the modern prison. Am. Crim. Law Rev. 48:11110
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Donaldson S 2001. A million jockers, punks, and queens. Prison Masculinities DF Sabo, TA Kupers, W London 118126. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Drabish K, Theeke LA. 2022. Health impact of stigma, discrimination, prejudice, and bias experienced by transgender people: a systematic review of quantitative studies. Issues Ment. Health Nurs. 43:211118
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Edelman E 2014.. ‘ Walking while transgender’: necropolitical regulations of trans feminine bodies of colour in the US nation's capital. Queer Necropolitics J Haritaworn, A Kuntsman, S Posocco 17290. Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Ezie C, Saenz R. 2020. Abuse and neglect of transgender people in prisons and jails: a lawyer's perspective. PLI Chron https://plus.pli.edu/Details/Details?fq=id%3A(315011-ATL3)
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Ferrell J. 1999. Cultural criminology. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 25:395418
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Fitzgerald E, Patterson SE, Hickey D, Biko C, Tobin HJ. 2015. Meaningful work: transgender experiences in the sex trade Rep. Natl. Cent. Transgender Equal., Best Pract. Policy Proj., Red Umbrella Proj. https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/Meaningful%20Work-Full%20Report_FINAL_3.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Fleisher MS, Krienert JL. 2009. The Myth of Prison Rape: Sexual Culture in American Prisons Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Flores A, Brown T, Herman J. 2016. Race and ethnicity of adults who identify as transgender in the United States Rep. Williams Inst., UCLA Sch. Law Los Angeles: https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Race-Ethnicity-Trans-Adults-US-Oct-2016.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Foster H. 2016. Conditions of confinement in restrictive housing Bur. Justice Stat. Rep. NCJ 250318 US Dep. Justice Washington, DC: https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/conditions-confinement-restrictive-housing
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Gardiner D. 2022. Police much more likely to stop transgender people in California for “reasonable suspicion. .” San Francisco Chronicle July 31. https://www.sfchronicle.com/politics/article/Transgender-California-police-LGBTQ-stop-report-17337333.php
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Grant J, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman JL, Mara K. 2011. Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Survey Rep. Natl. Cent. Transgender Equal. Natl. Gay Lesbian Task Force Washington, DC: https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/NTDS_Report.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Greene JT. 2019. Categorical exclusions: how racialized gender regulation reproduces reentry hardship. Soc. Probl. 66:454863
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Haley S. 2016. No Mercy Here: Gender, Punishment, and the Making of Jim Crow Modernity Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Hansen C, Viox M 2022. Should you be re-asking sexual orientation and gender identity in your surveys? Rep. NORC, Univ. Chic. Chicago: https://www.norc.org/Blog/Pages/sparks-post.aspx?BlogId=138
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Hasenbush A, Flores AR, Herman JL. 2019. Gender identity nondiscrimination laws in public accommodations: a review of evidence regarding safety and privacy in public restrooms, locker rooms, and changing rooms. Sex Res. Soc. Policy 16:17083
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Hereth J. 2022. Overrepresentation of people who identify as LGBTQ+ in the criminal legal system Saf. Justice Chall. Rep. MacArthur Found. Chicago: https://safetyandjusticechallenge.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/LQBTQOverrepresentationReport-1.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hereth J, Garthe RC, Garofalo R, Reisner SL, Mimiaga MJ, Kuhns LM. 2021. Examining patterns of interpersonal violence, structural and social exclusion, resilience, and arrest among young transgender women. Crim. Justice Behav. 48:15475
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Herman JL, Brown TNT, Wilson BDM, Meyer IH, Flores AR. 2016. Prevalence, characteristics, and sexual victimization of incarcerated transgender people in the United States: results from the National Inmate Survey (NIS-3) Rep. Williams Inst., UCLA Sch. Law Los Angeles: https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/infographics/incarcerated-trans-us/
    [Google Scholar]
  50. [Google Scholar]
  51. Hughto JMW, Clark KA, Altice FL, Reisner SL, Kershaw TS, Pachankis JE. 2018. Creating, reinforcing, and resisting the gender binary: a qualitative study of transgender women's healthcare experiences in sex-segregated jails and prisons. Int. J. Prison. Health 14:26988
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Hughto JMW, Quinn EK, Dunbar MS, Rose AJ, Shireman TI, Jasuja GK. 2021. Prevalence and co-occurrence of alcohol, nicotine, and other substance use disorder diagnoses among US transgender and cisgender adults. JAMA Netw. Open 4:2e2036512
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hunt J, Moodie-Mills AC. 2012. The unfair criminalization of gay and transgender youth: an overview of the experiences of LGBT youth in the juvenile justice system Rep. Cent. Am. Prog. Washington, DC: https://www.americanprogress.org/article/the-unfair-criminalization-of-gay-and-transgender-youth/
    [Google Scholar]
  54. James E, Herman L, Rankin S, Keisling M, Anafi M. 2016. The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey Rep. Natl. Cent. Transgender Equal. Washington, DC: https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/usts/USTS-Full-Report-Dec17.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  55. James J, Brennan DJ, Peck R, Nussbaum N. 2022. Family nonsupport of young trans people, experiences of legal problems, and access to the legal system. J. LGBT Youth 20:24864
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Jenness V. 2004. Explaining criminalization: from demography and status politics to globalization and modernization. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 30:14771
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Jenness V. 2021. The social ecology of sexual victimization against transgender women who are incarcerated: a call for (more) research on modalities of housing and prison violence. Criminol. Public Policy 20:1318
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Jenness V, Fenstermaker S. 2014. Agnes goes to prison: gender authenticity, transgender inmates in prisons for men, and pursuit of “the real deal. .” Gend. Soc. 28:1531
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Jenness V, Fenstermaker S. 2016. Forty years after Brownmiller: prisons for men, transgender inmates, and the rape of the feminine. Gend. Soc. 30:11429
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Jenness V, Maxson C, Matsuda K, Sumner J. 2007. Violence in California correctional facilities: an empirical examination of sexual assault Rep. Cent. Evid.-Based Correct. Univ. Calif. Irvine, CA: https://ucicorrections.seweb.uci.edu/files/2013/06/BulletinVol2Issue2.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jenness V, Sexton L, Sumner J. 2019. Sexual victimization against transgender women in prison: consent and coercion in context. Criminology 57:460331
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Jones A. 2021. Visualizing the unequal treatment of LGBTQ people in the criminal justice system. Prison Policy Initiative https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2021/03/02/lgbtq/
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Kidd J, Witten T. 2010. Transgender and transsexual identities: the next strange fruit—hate crimes, violence and genocide against the global trans communities. J. Hate Stud. 6:33163
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kirkland A, Talesh S, Perone AK. 2021. Health insurance rights and access to health care for trans people: the social construction of medical necessity. Law Soc. Rev. 55:453962
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Kunzel R. 2008. Criminal Intimacy: Prison and the Uneven History of Modern American Sexuality Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Lambda Leg 2015. Protected and served? Rep. Lambda Leg. New York: https://legacy.lambdalegal.org/sites/default/files/publications/downloads/ps_executive-summary.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Lawrence v. Texas, 529 U.S. 558 2003.)
  68. Lee C. 2014. The trans panic defense: masculinity, heteronormativity, and the murder of transgender women. Hastings Law J 66:177132
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Levitt R. 2013. Review of Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics, and the Limits of Law by Dean Spade, by R Levitt. QED J. GLBTQ Worldmak. 1:121517
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lin J, Grattet R, Petersilia J. 2012. Justice by other means: venue sorting in parole revocation. Law Policy 34:434972
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lloyd A. 2005. Defining the human: Are transgender people strangers to the law?. Berkeley J. Gend. Law Justice 20:115095
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Lydon J, Carrington K, Low H, Miller R, Yazdy M. 2015. Coming out of concrete closets: a report on Black & Pink's National LGBTQ Prisoner Survey Rep. Black Pink Omaha, NE: https://www.blackandpink.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Coming-Out-of-Concrete-Closets-incorcporated-Executive-summary102115.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lyseggen KS. 2015. The Women of San Quentin: Soul Murder of Transgender Women in Male Prison Clearwater, FL: SFINX Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Macy J, Brown J, Jenness V. 2023. Judicial interventions and the proliferation of transgender prisoner policies: from sex, to gender, to the promise of policy implementation. The Handbook of LGBT Communities, and Justice D Peterson, V Panfil New York: Springer. , 2nd ed.. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Manson J. 2019. Transgender women of color face crushing rates of incarceration, solitary confinement, and abuse Rep. Solitary Watch Washington, DC: https://solitarywatch.org/2019/07/22/transgender-women-of-color-face-crushing-rates-of-incarceration-solitary-confinement-and-abuse/
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Marksamer J. 2008. And by the way, do you know he thinks he's a girl? The failures of law, policy and legal representation for transgender youth in juvenile delinquency courts. Sex Res. Soc. Policy 5:17292
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Martins A, Coelho CM. 2022. Notes on the (im)possibilities of an anti-colonial queer abolition of the (carceral) world. GLQ J. Lesbian Gay Stud. 28:220726
    [Google Scholar]
  78. McCauley E, Eckstrand K, Desta B, Bouvier B, Brockmann B, Brinkley-Rubinstein L. 2018. Exploring healthcare experiences for incarcerated individuals who identify as transgender in a Southern jail. Int. J. Transgender Health 3:13441
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Meadow T. 2010.. “ A rose is a rose”: on producing legal gender classifications. Gend. Soc. 24:681437
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Meyer D. 2014. Resisting hate crime discourse: queer and intersectional challenges to neoliberal hate crime laws. Crit Crim 22:111325
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Meyer IH, Flores AR, Stemple L, Romero AP, Wilson BDM, Herman JL. 2017. Incarceration rates and traits of sexual minorities in the United States: National Inmate Survey, 2011–2012. Am. J. Public Health 107:226773
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Mezey SG. 2020. Transgender policymaking: the view from the states. Publius J. Fed. 50:3494517
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Mogul JL, Ritchie AJ, Whitlock K. 2011. Queer (In)Justice: The Criminalization of LGBT People in the United States Boston: Beacon Press
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Momen RE, Dilks LM. 2020. Examining case outcomes in US transgender homicides: an exploratory investigation of the intersectionality of victim characteristics. Sociol. Spectr. 41:15379
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Motley DN, Forberg F, Pagkas-Bather J, Bouris A, Schneider J. 2023. From trauma to transformation: the role of the trauma surgeon in the care of black transgender women. Curr. Trauma Rep. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40719-023-00254-8
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  86. Mountz S. 2020. Remapping pipelines and pathways: listening to queer and transgender youth of color's trajectories through girls’ juvenile justice facilities. Affilia 35:217799
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Mov. Adv. Proj 2023. Equality maps: panic defense bans Rep. Mov. Adv. Proj. Boulder, CO: https://www.lgbtmap.org/equality-maps/panic_defense_bans
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Nadal KL, Davidoff KC, Fujii-Doe W. 2014. Transgender women and the sex work industry: roots in systemic, institutional, and interpersonal discrimination. J. Trauma Dissociation 15:216983
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, Hwahng S, Mason M et al. 2014. Gender abuse, depressive symptoms, and substance use among transgender women: a 3-year prospective study. Am. J. Public Health 104:112199206
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. 644 2015.)
  91. Oparah JC. 2012. Feminism and the (trans)gender entrapment of gender nonconforming prisoners. UCLA Women's Law J. 18:223971
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Panfil VR. 2018. Young and unafraid: queer criminology's unbounded potential. Palgrave Commun 4:115
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Panfil VR 2022. Queer criminology and ethnography. The Oxford Handbook of Ethnographies of Crime and Criminal Justice S Bucerius, K Haggerty, L Berandi 26987. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Parker K, Horowitz J, Brown A, Arditi T. 2022. America's complex views on gender identity and transgender issues. Pew Research Center https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2022/06/28/americans-complex-views-on-gender-identity-and-transgender-issues/
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Pérez M, Radi B. 2020. Gender punitivism: queer perspectives on identity politics in criminal justice. Criminol. Crim. Justice 20:552336
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Radi B. 2019. On Trans* epistemology: critiques, contributions, and challenges. TSQ Transgender Stud. Q. 6:14363
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Reed AR. 2022.. “ We're here! We're queer! Fuck the banks!”: on the affective lives of abolition. GLQ J. Lesbian Gay Stud. 28:222747
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Reisner SL, Mimiaga MJ, Bland S, Mayer KH, Perkovich B, Safren SA. 2009. HIV risk and social networks among male-to-female transgender sex workers in Boston, Massachusetts. J. Assoc. Nurses AIDS Care 20:537386
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Richie B. 2005. Queering antiprison work: African American lesbians in the juvenile justice system. Global Lockdown: Race, Gender, and the Prison-Industrial Complex JC Oparah 7385. New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Richie B. 2012. Arrested Justice: Black Women, Violence, and America's Prison Nation New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Robinson RK. 2011. Masculinity as prison: sexual identity, race, and incarceration. Calif. Law Rev. 99:51309408
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Rodgers J, Asquith N, Dwyer A. 2017. Cisnormativity, criminalisation, vulnerability: transgender people in prisons. TILES Brief. Pap. 12:113
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Rogers E, Krajewski A, Shuster S. 2023. The disproportionate mental health burden among incarcerated transgender and gender diverse people. J. Correct. Health Care 29:13946
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Rogers SA, Rogers BA. 2021. Trans men's pathways to incarceration. Sociol. Spectr. 41:111534
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Rohrer MM. 2015. The ethical case for undercounting trans individuals. TSQ Transgender Stud. Q. 2:117578
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Routh D, Abess G, Makin D, Stohr MK, Hemmens C, Yoo J. 2017. Transgender inmates in prisons: a review of applicable statutes and policies. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 61:664566
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Rowland A. 2022. The carceral production of transgender categorical precarity Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Law and Society Association Lisbon:
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Salter J. 2023. Transgender Missouri inmate executed for fatal stabbing. Associated Press News Jan. 4 https://apnews.com/article/crime-legal-proceedings-missouri-st-louis-capital-punishment-b45a31029fa42d9eb67b5b4e1f6a6ffe
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Sampson RJ, Laub JH. 1993. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Sanders T, Gildersleeve J, Halliwell S, du Plessis C, Clark KA et al. 2023. Trans architecture and the prison as archive: “Don't be a queen and you won't be arrested. .” Punishm. Soc. 25:74265
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Sausa LA, Keatley J, Operario D. 2007. Perceived risks and benefits of sex work among transgender women of color in San Francisco. Arch. Sex. Behav. 36:676877
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Scheim AI, Bauer GR, Shokoohi M. 2017. Drug use among transgender people in Ontario, Canada: disparities and associations with social exclusion. Addict. Behav. 72:15158
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Schilt K, Lagos D. 2017. The development of transgender studies in sociology. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 43:42543
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Sears C. 2015. Arresting Dress: Cross-Dressing, Law, and Fascination in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Sevelius J, Jenness V. 2017. Challenges and opportunities for gender-affirming healthcare for transgender women in prison. Int. J. Prison. Health 13:13240
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Sexton L, Jenness V, Sumner J. 2010. Where the margins meet: a demographic assessment of transgender inmates in men's prisons. Justice Q 27:83566
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Sharpe A. 2002. Transgender Jurisprudence: Dysphoric Bodies of Law London: Cavendish Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Sharpe A. 2019. Sexual Intimacy and Gender Identity Fraud: Reframing the Legal and Ethical Debate Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Shields DM. 2021. Stonewalling in the Brick City: perceptions of and experiences with seeking police assistance among LGBTQ citizens. Soc. Sci. 10:116
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Snorton CR, Haritaworn J 2022. Trans necropolitics: a transnational reflection on violence, death, and the trans of color afterlife. The Transgender Studies Reader Remix S Stryker, B Blackston 6678. New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  121. [Google Scholar]
  122. Spade D. 2015. Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics, and the Limits of Law Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press. Rev. expand. ed.
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Stammen E, Ghandnoosh N. 2022. Incarcerated LGBTQ+ adults and youth. The Sentencing Project https://www.sentencingproject.org/app/uploads/2022/10/Incarcerated-LGBTQ-Youth-and-Adults.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Stanley E, Smith N, eds. 2015. Captive Genders: Trans Embodiment and the Prison Industrial Complex Edinburgh: AK Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Stohr MK. 2015. The hundred years’ war: the etiology and status of assaults on transgender women in men's prisons. Women Crim. Justice 25:1–212029
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Storrow R. 1997. Naming the grotesque body in the “nascent jurisprudence of transsexualism. .” Mich. J. Gend. Law 4:2275334
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Stotzer RL. 2014. Law enforcement and criminal justice personnel interactions with transgender people in the United States: a literature review. Aggress. Violent Behav. 19:326377
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Stryker S. 2017. Transgender History: The Roots of Today's Revolution Berkeley: Seal Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Stryker S, Whittle S, eds. 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Sutherland DK. 2023.. “ Trans enough”: examining the boundaries of transgender-identity management. Soc. Probl. 70:17186
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Taylor JK, Haider-Markel DP, Lewis DC. 2018. The Remarkable Rise of Transgender Rights Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. Mich. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Terwindt C. 2014. Criminalization of social protest: future research. Oñati Socio-Leg. Ser. 4:116169
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Track Trans Legis 2023. 2023 Anti-trans legislation. Track Trans Legislation www.tracktranslegislation.com. Accessed on March 24, 2023
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Trans Legis. Tracker 2023. The rise of anti-trans bills. Trans Legislation Tracker https://translegislation.comAccessed on March 24, 2023
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Trexler RC. 1995. Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Tumin R. 2022. Kentucky lawmaker speaks out about transgender son's suicide. New York Times Dec. 23 https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/23/us/henry-berg-brousseau-transgender-activist-dead.html
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Utnage R. 2023. Trans and living in prison: a first-person perspective. J. Correct. Health Care 29:1618
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Valentine D. 2007. Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Vipond E. 2015. Trans rights will not protect us: the limits of equal rights discourse, antidiscrimination laws, and hate crime legislation. West. J. Leg. Stud. 6:13
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Vitulli EW. 2013. Queering the carceral: intersecting queer/trans studies and critical prison studies. GLQ J. Lesbian Gay Stud. 19:111123
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Vogler S, Rosales R. 2022. Classification and coercion: the gendered punishment of transgender women in immigration detention. Soc. Probl. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spac022
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  142. Walker A, Sexton L, Valcore J, Macy J, Wodda A. 2018. Transitioning to social justice: transgender and non-binary individuals. Routledge Handbook of Social, Economic, and Criminal Justice C Roberson 22033. New York: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Ware W. 2015.. “ Rounding up the homosexuals”: the impact of juvenile court on queer and trans/gender non-conforming youth. Captive Genders: Trans Embodiment and the Prison Industrial Complex E Stanley, N Smith 97104. Edinburgh: AK Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Westbrook L. 2020. Unlivable Lives: Violence and Identity in Transgender Activism Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Westbrook L, Schilt K. 2014. Doing gender, determining gender: transgender people, gender panics, and the maintenance of the sex/gender/sexuality system. Gend. Soc. 28:13257
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Wildeman C, Andersen LH. 2020. Long-term consequences of being placed in disciplinary segregation. Criminology 58:342353
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Winters MK. 2022. Queer pathways. Queering Criminology in Theory and Praxis: Reimagining Justice in the Criminal Legal System and Beyond C Buist, L Semprevivo 3244. Bristol, UK: Bristol Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Wodda A, Panfil VR. 2015.. “ Don't talk to me about deception”: the necessary erosion of the trans-panic defense. Albany Law Rev 78:392771
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Woods JB, Sears B, Mallory C. 2016. Model legislation for eliminating the gay and trans panic defenses Rep. Williams Inst., UCLA Sch. Law Los Angeles: https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Gay-Trans-Panic-Apr-2021.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Wooldredge J. 2020. Prison culture, management, and in-prison violence. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 3:16588
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Worthen MGF. 2021. Categorically queer? An exploratory study of identifying queer in the USA. Sex Res. Soc. Policy 19:31090113
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Yarbrough D. 2021. The carceral production of transgender poverty: how racialized gender policing deprives transgender women of housing and safety. Punishm. Soc. 25:114161
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Zimman L, Davis J, Raclaw J, eds. 2014. Queer Excursions: Retheorizing Binaries in Language, Gender, and Sexuality New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-022222-040947
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error