1932

Abstract

This review situates the recent, radical challenges to American criminal justice—calls to end mass incarceration, defund the police, and dismantle systemic racism—within the broader social and economic arrangements that make the US system so distinctive and so problematic. It describes the social structures, institutions, and processes that give rise to America's extraordinary penal state—as well as to its extraordinarily high rates of homicide and social disorder—and considers what these portend for the prospect of radical change. It does so by locating American crime and punishment in the structural context of America's (always-already racialized) political economy—a distinctive set of social structures and institutional legacies that render the United States more violent, more disorderly, and more reliant on penal control than any other developed nation. Drawing on a broad range of social science research findings, it argues that this peculiar political economy—a form of capitalism and democratic governance forged on the anvils of slavery and racial segregation and rendered increasingly insecure and exclusionary in the decades following deindustrialization—generates high levels of social disorganization and criminal violence and predisposes state authorities to adopt penal control as the preferred policy response.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-030722-035139
2023-01-27
2024-10-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/criminol/6/1/annurev-criminol-030722-035139.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-030722-035139&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Alesino E, Glaeser A. 2006. Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Alexander M. 2010. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color-Blindness. New York: New Press
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Anderson E 1999. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Archer R. 2007. Why Is There No Labor Party in the United States? Princeton, NJ:: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Armstrong NL. 2021. Black voters in Minneapolis wanted better policing, not posturing by progressives. New York Times Nov. 9. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/09/opinion/minneapolis-police-defund.html
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Austin J, Jacobson M, Chettiar I. 2013. How New York City reduced mass incarceration: a model for change? Rep. Brennen Cent. Justice New York: https://www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/files/publications/How_NYC_Reduced_Mass_Incarceration.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Baldwin P. 2009. The Narcissism of Minor Differences: How America and Europe Are Similar. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Barr A-GW. 1992. The case for more incarceration. Rep. Off. Atty. Gen. Washington, DC:
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bazelon E. 2019. Charged: The New Movement to Transform American Prosecution and End Mass Incarceration New York: Random House
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Beckett K, Western B. 2001. Governing social marginality: welfare, incarceration, and the transformation of state policy. Punishm. Soc. 3:143–55
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Bennett W, DiUilio J, Walters J. 1996. Body Count: Moral Poverty and How to Win America's War Against Crime and Drugs. New York: Simon and Schuster
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bensel RF. 1984. Sectionalism and American Political Development, 1880–1980 Madison, WI: Univ. Wis. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bowles N. 2020. Abolish the police? Those who survived the chaos in Seattle aren't so sure. New York Times Aug. 7 (updated Jan. 6, 2021). https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/07/us/defund-police-seattle-protests.html
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Buchanan L, Bui Q, Patel J. 2020. Black Lives Matter may be the biggest movement in US history. New York Times July 3. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Butler P. 2017. Chokehold: Policing Black Men New York: New Press
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Campbell M, Schoenfeld H. 2013. The transformation of America's penal order: a historicized political sociology of punishment. Am. J. Sociol. 118:51375–423
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Chudy J, Jefferson H. 2021. Support for Black Lives Matter surged last year: Did it last?. New York Times May 22. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/22/opinion/blm-movement-protests-support.html
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Clarke R. 1992. Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. Albany, NY: Harrow and Heston
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Clegg J, Usmani A. 2019. The economic origins of mass incarceration. Catalyst 3:9–53
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Clegg J, Usmani A. 2021. What explains mass incarceration Paper presented at the Radcliffe Accelerator on Mass Incarceration Cambridge, MA: April
    [Google Scholar]
  21. CR10 Publ. Collect 2008. Abolition Now! 10 Years of Strategy and Struggle Against the Prison-Industrial Complex. Chico, CA: AK Press
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Currie E. 2020. A Peculiar Indifference: The Neglected Toll of Violence on Black America. New York: Metropolitan Books
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Dienst J, Paredes D. 2019. I-Team: NYPD shootings dramatically decrease over decades, data shows NBC New York: Feb. 28. https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/nypd-police-involved-shootings-decrease-dramatically-nyc/19351/
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Downes D 2012. Political economy, welfare and punishment in comparative perspective. Resisting Punitiveness in Europe S Snacken, E Dumortier 23–34 Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Econ. Data Team 2018. Americans overestimate social mobility in their own country. The Economist Feb. 14. https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/02/14/americans-overestimate-social-mobility-in-their-country
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Enns P. 2016. Incarceration Nation: How the United States Became the Most Punitive Democracy in the World Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Ewing J. 2020. United States is the richest country in the world, and it has the biggest wealth gap. New York Times Sept. 23. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/23/business/united-states-is-the-richest-country-in-the-world-and-it-has-the-biggest-wealth-gap.html
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Fajnzylber P, Lederman D, Loayza N. 2002. Inequality and violent crime. J. Law Econ. 45:11–39
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Flamm M. 2007. Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s. New York: Columbia Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Foner E. 1984. Why is there no socialism in the United States?. J. Hist. Workshop 17:157–80
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Foner E. 1999. The Story of American Freedom. New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Forman J. 2014. Racial critiques of mass incarceration: beyond the New Jim Crow. NYU Law Rev. 87:101–46
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Forman J. 2017. Locking Up Our Own: Crime and Punishment in Black America. New York: FSG
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Förster MF, Vleminckx K. 2004. International comparisons of income inequality and poverty: findings from the Luxembourg study. Socio-Econ. Rev. 2:191–212
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Gabbidon S, Boisvert D. 2012. Public opinion on crime causation. J. Crim. Justice 40:150–59
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Garfinkel I, Rainwater L, Smeeding T. 2010. Wealth and Welfare States: Is America a Laggard or Leader? New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Garland D. 1985. Punishment and Welfare: A History of Penal Strategies. New Orleans: Quid Pro Books
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Garland D. 2001. The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Garland D 2016a. Punishment and welfare: social problems and social structure. Oxford Handbook of Criminology A Liebling, S Maruna, L McAra 77–97 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Garland D. 2016b. The Welfare State: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Garland D. 2017. Penal power in America: forms, functions and foundations. J. Br. Acad. 5:1–35
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Garland D. 2020. Penal controls and social controls: toward a theory of American penal exceptionalism. Punishm. Soc. 22:3321–52
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Gilens M. 1999. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Gottschalk M. 2006. The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Gramlich J. 2022. What the data says about gun deaths in the US. Pew Research Center Feb. 3. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/02/03/what-the-data-says-about-gun-deaths-in-the-u-s/
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Grinshteyn E, Hemenway D. 2016. Violent death rates: the US compared to other high-income OECD countries; 2010. Am. J. Med. 129:3P266–73
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Hacker J. 2006. The Divided Welfare State: The Battle Over Public and Private Social Benefits in the United States Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Hacker J. 2008. The Great Risk Shift: The New Economic Insecurity. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Hacker J, Hertel-Fernandez A, Pierson P, Thelen K, eds. 2021. The American Political Economy: Politics, Markets, and Power Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Harcourt B. 2012. The Illusion of Free Markets. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Hinton E. 2017. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Hinton E. 2021. America on Fire: The Untold History of Police Violence and Black Rebellion Since the 1960s New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Hinton E, Cook D. 2021. The mass criminalization of black Americans: a historical overview. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 4:261–86
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Horowitz JM, Brown A, Cox K. 2019. Race in America 2019. Pew Research Center April 9. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019/
    [Google Scholar]
  55. IGPA (Inst. Gov. Public Aff.) 2021. Tracking trends in racial attitudes Rep., IGPA Urbana, IL: https://igpa.uillinois.edu/racial-attitudes/
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Jericho M. 2020. No, Australia is not the US: Our shocking racial injustice is all our own. The Guardian June 6. https://www.theguardian.com/business/grogonomics/2020/jun/07/no-australia-is-not-the-us-our-shocking-racial-injustice-is-all-our-own
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Karabel J. 2021. Let's honor the true spirit of Labor Day. New York Times Sept. 5. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/05/opinion/labor-day-us-history.html
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Karabel J, Laurison D. 2011. Outlier nation? American exceptionalism and the quality of life in the United States Work. Pap. 112-11 Inst. Res. Labor Employ., Univ. Calif. Berkeley: https://www.irle.berkeley.edu/files/2011/Outlier-Nation.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Katz M, Yi J. 2020. NJ gave 2,200 prisoners freedom, but not what they needed to restart their lives. Gothamist Nov. 14. https://gothamist.com/news/nj-gave-2200-prisoners-freedom-not-what-they-needed-restart-their-lives
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Katznelson I. 2006. When Affirmative Action Was White. New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Kenworthy L. 2015. Social Democratic America. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kim J, Wilson M. 2020.. “ Blue Lives Matter” and “Defund the Police” clash in the streets. New York Times July 22. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/22/nyregion/ny-back-the-blue-lives-matter-rallies.html
    [Google Scholar]
  63. King D. 1999. In the Name of Liberalism: Illiberal Social Policy in the US New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kirkpatrick D, Eder S, Barker K, Tate J. 2021. Why many police traffic stops turn deadly. New York Times Nov. 20. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/31/us/police-traffic-stops-killings.html
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Kristoff N. 2017. How to win a war on drugs. New York Times Sept. 22. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/22/opinion/sunday/portugal-drug-decriminalization.html
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Krivo L, Peterson R, Kuhl D. 2009. Segregation, racial structure, and neighborhood violent crime. Am. J. Sociol. 114:1765–802
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Lappi-Seppala T. 2008. Trust, welfare, and political culture: explaining differences in national penal policies. Crime Justice 31:1313–87
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Lappi-Seppala T 2017. American exceptionalism in comparative perspective. American Exceptionalism in Crime and Punishment K Reitz 195–271 New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Latzer B. 2017. The Rise and Fall of Violent Crime in America. New York: Encounter Books
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lebron C. 2018. The Making of Black Lives Matter: A Brief History of an Idea. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Levitsky S, Ziblatt D. 2018. How Democracies Die. New York: Viking
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Li DK. 2020. African Americans “probably ought to be” shot more by police, a top Tulsa officer said. NBC News June 11. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/african-americans-probably-ought-be-shot-more-police-top-tulsa-n1229981
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Lieberman R. 1998. Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Light M. 2022. The declining significance of race in criminal sentencing: evidence from US federal courts. Soc. Forces 100:31110–41
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lipset SM. 1963. The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective New York: Basic Books
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Lipset SM. 1997. American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lopez G. 2016. Want to end mass incarceration? This poll should worry you. Vox Sept. 7. https://www.vox.com/2016/9/7/12814504/mass-incarceration-poll
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Lowndes JE, Novkov J, Warren DT, eds. 2008. Race and American Political Development Abingdon, UK: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Mac Donald H. 2016. The War on Cops New York: Encounter Books
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Marquand D. 2004. Decline of the Public: The Hollowing Out of Citizenship London: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Miller L. 2015. What's violence got to do with it? Inequality, punishment and state failure in American politics. Punishm. Soc. 17:2184–210
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Morenoff J, Sampson R, Raudenbush S. 2001. Neighborhood inequality, collective efficacy and the spatial dynamics of urban violence. Criminology 39:517–60
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Muhammad KG. 2019. The Condemnation of Blackness Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Muller C, Roehrkasse A. 2021. Racial and class inequality in US incarceration in the early twenty-first century. Soc. Forces 2021:soab141. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soab141
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  85. Murakawa N. 2014. The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Natl. Res. Counc 2014. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Nor. Minist. Justice Public Secur 2017. Reduced recidivism to crime Rep., Nor. Minist. Justice Public Secur. Oslo: https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/3f8ac79225654863ad3f9b0e082bf9f0/strategy_reduced-recidivism-to-crime.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  88. O'Flaherty B, Sethi R. 2019. Shadows of Doubt: Stereotyping, Crime and the Pursuit of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Park K-S. 2018. Self-deportation nation. Harv. Law Rev. 132:1878–941
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Parker K, Hurst K. 2021. Growing share of Americans say they want more spending on police in their area. Pew Research Center Oct. 26. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/10/26/growing-share-of-americans-say-they-want-more-spending-on-police-in-their-area/
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Pestritto RJ. 2021. America Transformed: The Rise And Legacy of American Progressivism New York: Encounter Books
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Pierson P, Skocpol T. 2007. The Transformation of American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Prasad M. 2006. The Politics of Free Markets: The Rise of Neoliberal Economic Policies in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States. Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Quinn J, Meyers H. 2022. These policies were supposed to help black people. They're backfiring. New York Times Feb. 15. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/15/opinion/nyc-black-victims-crime.html
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Rainwater L, Smeeding T. 2004. Poor Kids in a Rich Country: America's Children in a Comparative Perspective New York: Russell Sage Found.
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Ramesh R. 2010. More black people jailed in England and Wales proportionately than in US. The Guardian Oct. 11. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/oct/11/black-prison-population-increase-england
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Reid TR. 2009. The Healing of America: A Global Quest for Better, Cheaper, and Fairer Health Care. New York: Penguin Press
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Rodgers D. 2018. The uses and abuses of neoliberalism. Dissent 65:178–87
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Sampson R. 1987. Urban black violence: the effects of male joblessness and family disruption. Am. J. Sociol. 93:2348–83
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Sampson R, Raudenbush S, Earls F. 1997. Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277:918–24
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Sampson R, Wilson WJ 1995. Toward a theory of race, crime and urban inequality. Crime and Inequality J Hagan, R Peterson 37–54 Stanford: Stanf. Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Sampson R, Wilson W. 2018. Reassessing “Toward a Theory of Race, Crime and Urban Inequality. .” Du Bois Rev. 15:113–34
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Sandel M. 2020. Tyranny of Merit: What's Become of the Common Good? New York: Farrar Straus Giroux
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Schiraldi V. 2020. Can we eliminate the youth prison? (And what should we replace it with?) Rep. Square One Proj. New York: https://squareonejustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/CJLJ8431-Square-One-Youth-Prisons-Paper-200828-2-WEB.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Schoenfeld H. 2018. Building the Prison State: Race and the Politics of Mass Incarceration Chicago: Univ. Chic. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Sentencing Proj 2018. Report to the United Nations on racial disparities in the US criminal justice system Rep. Sentencing Proj. Washington, DC: https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Sharkey P. 2018. Uneasy Peace: The Great Crime Decline, the Renewal of City Life, and the Next War on Violence. New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Sharkey P, Glazer E. 2021. Social fabric: a new model for public safety and vital neighborhoods Rep. Square One Proj. New York: https://squareonejustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/CJLJ8743-Social-Fabric-Square-One-WEB-report-210406.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Sklansky D. 2018. The problems with prosecutors. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1:451–69
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Smeeding T. 2006. Poor people in rich nations. J. Econ. Perspect. 20:169–90
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Stoughton S. 2015. Law enforcement's warrior problem. Harv. Law Rev. Forum 128:225–34
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Subramanian R, Shames A. 2013. Sentencing and Prison Practice in Germany and the Netherlands. New York: VERA Inst.
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Sutton J. 2004. The political economy of imprisonment in affluent western democracies. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69:170–89
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Thompson D. 2021. Why America's great crime decline is over. Atlantic March 24. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/03/is-americas-great-crime-decline-over/618381/
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Tonry M 2007. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 36 Crime, Punishment, and Politics in Comparative Perspective Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Tonry M. 2011. Punishing Race: A Continuing American Dilemma. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Travis J, Western B. 2013. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  118. US Dep. Justice 1992. The case for more incarceration. Rep. NCJ 139583 Off. Atty. Gen. Washington, DC: https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/139583NCJRS.pdf
    [Google Scholar]
  119. US Dep. Justice Civ. Rights Div 2015. The Ferguson Report: Department of Justice Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department. New York: New Press
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Unnever J, Cullen F, Jones J. 2008. Public support for attacking the “root causes” of crime. Sociol. Focus 41:11–33
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Wacquant L. 2009. Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Walker S, Katz C. 2018. The Police in America: An Introduction. New York: McGraw Hill
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Weaver V. 2007. Frontlash: race and the development of punitive crime policy. Stud. Am. Political Dev. 21:230–65
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Western B. 2018. Homeward: Life in the Year After Prison. New York: Russell Sage Found.
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Western B, Beckett K. 1999. How unregulated is the US labor market? The prison as a labor market institution. Am. J. Sociol. 104:41030–60
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Whitman JQ. 2003. Harsh Justice: Criminal Justice and the Widening Divide between America and Europe. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Widra E, Herring T 2022. States of incarceration: the global context 2021. Prison Policy Initiative https://www.prisonpolicy.org/global/2021.html
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Wilkinson R, Pickett K. 2010. The Spirit Level: Why Greater Equality Makes Societies Stronger. London: Bloomsbury:
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Wilson JQ. 1975. Thinking About Crime. New York: Basic Books. Rev. ed.
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Woessmann L. 2015. An international look at the single-parent family. Educ. Next 15:2 https://www.educationnext.org/international-look-single-parent-family/
    [Google Scholar]
  131. World Popul. Rev 2022. Gun ownership by country 2022. Rep., World Popul. Rev. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/gun-ownership-by-country
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Wright EO, Rodgers J. 2011. American Society: How It Really Works. New York: Norton
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Yi K, Katz M. 2020. 2,200 NJ prisoners were released early. Very few got promised help. WNYC News Nov. 11. https://www.wnyc.org/story/2200-nj-prisoners-were-released-early-very-few-got-promised-help/
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Zimring F. 2006. The Great American Crime Decline. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Zimring F. 2012. The City that Became Safe: New York's Lessons for Urban Crime and its Control New York: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Zimring F. 2017. When Police Kill Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-criminol-030722-035139
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error