1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Medicine
  4. Volume 74, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Medicine

Volume 74, 2023

Endocrine Disorders and COVID-19

Abstract

The multifaceted interaction between coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the endocrine system has been a major area of scientific research over the past two years. While common endocrine/metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes have been recognized among significant risk factors for COVID-19 severity, several endocrine organs were identified to be targeted by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). New-onset endocrine disorders related to COVID-19 were reported while long-term effects, if any, are yet to be determined. Meanwhile, the “stay home” measures during the pandemic caused interruption in the care of patients with pre-existing endocrine disorders and may have impeded the diagnosis and treatment of new ones. This review aims to outline this complex interaction between COVID-19 and endocrine disorders by synthesizing the current scientific knowledge obtained from clinical and pathophysiological studies, and to emphasize considerations for future research.

Keyword(s): adrenal, COVID-19, endocrine system, obesity, pituitary, reproduction, SARS-CoV-2, thyroid
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-033509
2023-01-27
2024-05-12
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/med/74/1/annurev-med-043021-033509.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-033509&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. 1.
    Hu B, Guo H, Zhou P, Shi ZL. 2021. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 19:141–54
     [Google Scholar]
  2. 2.
    Helvaci N, Eyupoglu ND, Karabulut E, Yildiz BO. 2021. Prevalence of obesity and its impact on outcome in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Endocrinol. 12:598249
     [Google Scholar]
  3. 3.
    Hendren NS, de Lemos JA, Ayers C et al. 2021. Association of body mass index and age with morbidity and mortality in patients hospitalized with COVID-19: results from the American Heart Association COVID-19 Cardiovascular Disease Registry. Circulation 143:135–44
     [Google Scholar]
  4. 4.
    Schlesinger S, Neuenschwander M, Lang A et al. 2021. Risk phenotypes of diabetes and association with COVID-19 severity and death: a living systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 64:1480–91
     [Google Scholar]
  5. 5.
    Williamson EJ, Walker AJ, Bhaskaran K et al. 2020. Factors associated with COVID-19-related death using OpenSAFELY. Nature 584:430–36
     [Google Scholar]
  6. 6.
    Wong R, Hall M, Vaddavalli R et al. 2022. Glycemic control and clinical outcomes in U.S. patients with COVID-19: data from the National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C) database. Diabetes Care 45:51099–106
     [Google Scholar]
  7. 7.
    Edenfield RC, Easley CA. 2022. Implications of testicular ACE2 and the renin-angiotensin system for SARS-CoV-2 on testis function. Nat. Rev. Urol. 19:116–27
     [Google Scholar]
  8. 8.
    Kanczkowski W, Evert K, Stadtmuller M et al. 2022. COVID-19 targets human adrenal glands. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 10:13–16
     [Google Scholar]
  9. 9.
    Brancatella A, Ricci D, Cappellani D et al. 2020. Is subacute thyroiditis an underestimated manifestation of SARS-CoV-2 infection? Insights from a case series. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 105:10e3742–46
     [Google Scholar]
  10. 10.
    Machado IFR, Menezes IQ, Figueiredo SR et al. 2021. Primary adrenal insufficiency due to bilateral adrenal infarction in COVID-19: a case report. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 107:1e394–400
     [Google Scholar]
  11. 11.
    Martinez-Perez R, Kortz MW, Carroll BW et al. 2021. Coronavirus disease 2019 and pituitary apoplexy: a single-center case series and review of the literature. World Neurosurg 152:e678–87
     [Google Scholar]
  12. 12.
    Clarke SA, Phylactou M, Patel B et al. 2021. Normal adrenal and thyroid function in patients who survive COVID-19 infection. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:2208–20
     [Google Scholar]
  13. 13.
    Salonia A, Pontillo M, Capogrosso P et al. 2022. Testosterone in males with COVID-19: a 7-month cohort study. Andrology 10:34–41
     [Google Scholar]
  14. 14.
    Puig-Domingo M, Marazuela M, Yildiz BO, Giustina A. 2021. COVID-19 and endocrine and metabolic diseases. An updated statement from the European Society of Endocrinology. Endocrine 72:301–16
     [Google Scholar]
  15. 15.
    Singh AK, Khunti K. 2022. COVID-19 and diabetes. Annu. Rev. Med. 73:129–47
     [Google Scholar]
  16. 16.
    WHO 2021. Obesity and overweight Fact Sheet, June 9 World Health Organ. Geneva, Switz: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
  17. 17.
    Anderson MR, Shashaty MGS. 2021. Impact of obesity in critical illness. Chest 160:2135–45
     [Google Scholar]
  18. 18.
    Du Y, Lv Y, Zha W et al. 2021. Association of body mass index (BMI) with critical COVID-19 and in-hospital mortality: a dose-response meta-analysis. Metabolism 117:154373
     [Google Scholar]
  19. 19.
    Huang HK, Bukhari K, Peng CC et al. 2021. The J-shaped relationship between body mass index and mortality in patients with COVID-19: a dose-response meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 23:1701–9
     [Google Scholar]
  20. 20.
    Karagiannidis C, Mostert C, Hentschker C et al. 2020. Case characteristics, resource use, and outcomes of 10 021 patients with COVID-19 admitted to 920 German hospitals: an observational study. Lancet Respir. Med. 8:853–62
     [Google Scholar]
  21. 21.
    Kim L, Garg S, O'Halloran A et al. 2021. Risk factors for intensive care unit admission and in-hospital mortality among hospitalized adults identified through the US Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network (COVID-NET). Clin. Infect. Dis. 72:e206–14
     [Google Scholar]
  22. 22.
    Niemi MEK, Pathak GA, Andrews SJ et al. 2021. Mapping the human genetic architecture of COVID-19. Nature 600:472–77
     [Google Scholar]
  23. 23.
    Foldi M, Farkas N, Kiss S et al. 2021. Visceral adiposity elevates the risk of critical condition in COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity 29:521–28
     [Google Scholar]
  24. 24.
    Longmore DK, Miller JE, Bekkering S et al. 2021. Diabetes and overweight/obesity are independent, nonadditive risk factors for in-hospital severity of COVID-19: an international, multicenter retrospective meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 44:1281–90
     [Google Scholar]
  25. 25.
    Yates T, Summerfield A, Razieh C et al. 2022. A population-based cohort study of obesity, ethnicity and COVID-19 mortality in 12.6 million adults in England. Nat. Commun. 13:624
     [Google Scholar]
  26. 26.
    Tartof SY, Qian L, Hong V et al. 2020. Obesity and mortality among patients diagnosed with COVID-19: results from an integrated health care organization. Ann. Intern. Med. 173:773–81
     [Google Scholar]
  27. 27.
    Gruberg L, Weissman NJ, Waksman R et al. 2002. The impact of obesity on the short-term and long-term outcomes after percutaneous coronary intervention: the obesity paradox?. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 39:4578–84
     [Google Scholar]
  28. 28.
    Sakr Y, Alhussami I, Nanchal R et al. 2015. Being overweight is associated with greater survival in ICU patients: results from the Intensive Care Over Nations audit. Crit. Care Med. 43:2623–32
     [Google Scholar]
  29. 29.
    Cunningham JW, Vaduganathan M, Claggett BL et al. 2020. Clinical outcomes in young US adults hospitalized with COVID-19. JAMA Intern. Med. 181:3379–81
     [Google Scholar]
  30. 30.
    Stefan N, Birkenfeld AL, Schulze MB. 2021. Global pandemics interconnected—obesity, impaired metabolic health and COVID-19. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 17:135–49
     [Google Scholar]
  31. 31.
    Oguz SH, Koca M, Yildiz BO. 2022. Aging versus youth: endocrine aspects of vulnerability for COVID-19. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 23:185–204
     [Google Scholar]
  32. 32.
    Aghili SMM, Ebrahimpur M, Arjmand B et al. 2021. Obesity in COVID-19 era, implications for mechanisms, comorbidities, and prognosis: a review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Obes. 45:998–1016
     [Google Scholar]
  33. 33.
    Hariyanto TI, Intan D, Hananto JE et al. 2021. Pre-admission glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) and mortality from coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19): a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 179:109031
     [Google Scholar]
  34. 34.
    Chu J, Xing C, Du Y et al. 2021. Pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid synthesis blocks SARS-CoV-2 replication. Nat. Metab. 3:1466–75
     [Google Scholar]
  35. 35.
    Carosi G, Morelli V, Del Sindaco G et al. 2021. Adrenal insufficiency at the time of COVID-19: a retrospective study in patients referring to a tertiary center. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:e1354–61
     [Google Scholar]
  36. 36.
    Hanley B, Naresh KN, Roufosse C et al. 2020. Histopathological findings and viral tropism in UK patients with severe fatal COVID-19: a post-mortem study. Lancet Microbe 1:e245–53
     [Google Scholar]
  37. 37.
    Leyendecker P, Ritter S, Riou M et al. 2021. Acute adrenal infarction as an incidental CT finding and a potential prognosis factor in severe SARS-CoV-2 infection: a retrospective cohort analysis on 219 patients. Eur. Radiol. 31:895–900
     [Google Scholar]
  38. 38.
    Marik PE, Pastores SM, Annane D et al. 2008. Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of corticosteroid insufficiency in critically ill adult patients: consensus statements from an international task force by the American College of Critical Care Medicine. Crit. Care Med. 36:1937–49
     [Google Scholar]
  39. 39.
    Amiri-Dashatan N, Koushki M, Parsamanesh N, Chiti H. 2022. Serum cortisol concentration and COVID-19 severity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Investig. Med. 70:766–72
     [Google Scholar]
  40. 40.
    Tan T, Khoo B, Mills EG et al. 2020. Association between high serum total cortisol concentrations and mortality from COVID-19. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 8:659–60
     [Google Scholar]
  41. 41.
    Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson JR et al. 2021. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 384:693–704
     [Google Scholar]
  42. 42.
    Mao Y, Xu B, Guan W et al. 2020. The adrenal cortex, an underestimated site of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Front. Endocrinol. 11:593179
     [Google Scholar]
  43. 43.
    Song Z, Bao L, Yu P et al. 2020. SARS-CoV-2 causes a systemically multiple organs damages and dissemination in hamsters. Front. Microbiol. 11:618891
     [Google Scholar]
  44. 44.
    Ding Y, Wang H, Shen H et al. 2003. The clinical pathology of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a report from China. J. Pathol. 200:282–89
     [Google Scholar]
  45. 45.
    Zinserling VA, Semenova NY, Markov AG et al. 2020. Inflammatory cell infiltration of adrenals in COVID-19. Horm. Metab. Res. 52:639–41
     [Google Scholar]
  46. 46.
    Brix TH, Hegedus L, Hallas J, Lund LC. 2021. Risk and course of SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients treated for hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 9:197–99
     [Google Scholar]
  47. 47.
    Khoo B, Tan T, Clarke SA et al. 2021. Thyroid function before, during, and after COVID-19. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:e803–11
     [Google Scholar]
  48. 48.
    Fliers E, Bianco AC, Langouche L, Boelen A. 2015. Thyroid function in critically ill patients. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 3:816–25
     [Google Scholar]
  49. 49.
    Lui DTW, Lee CH, Chow WS et al. 2021. Role of non-thyroidal illness syndrome in predicting adverse outcomes in COVID-19 patients predominantly of mild-to-moderate severity. Clin. Endocrinol. 95:469–77
     [Google Scholar]
  50. 50.
    Beltrao FEL, Beltrao DCA, Carvalhal G et al. 2021. Thyroid hormone levels during hospital admission inform disease severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients. Thyroid 31:1639–49
     [Google Scholar]
  51. 51.
    Chen Y, Li X, Dai Y, Zhang J. 2021. The association between COVID-19 and thyroxine levels: a meta-analysis. Front. Endocrinol. 12:779692
     [Google Scholar]
  52. 52.
    Muller I, Cannavaro D, Dazzi D et al. 2020. SARS-CoV-2-related atypical thyroiditis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 8:739–41
     [Google Scholar]
  53. 53.
    Trimboli P, Cappelli C, Croce L et al. 2021. COVID-19-associated subacute thyroiditis: evidence-based data from a systematic review. Front. Endocrinol. 12:707726
     [Google Scholar]
  54. 54.
    Pirola I, Gandossi E, Rotondi M et al. 2021. Incidence of De Quervain's thyroiditis during the COVID-19 pandemic in an area heavily affected by Sars-CoV-2 infection. Endocrine 74:215–8
     [Google Scholar]
  55. 55.
    Kawashima A, Tanigawa K, Akama T et al. 2011. Innate immune activation and thyroid autoimmunity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96:3661–71
     [Google Scholar]
  56. 56.
    Vojdani A, Kharrazian D. 2020. Potential antigenic cross-reactivity between SARS-CoV-2 and human tissue with a possible link to an increase in autoimmune diseases. Clin. Immunol. 217:108480
     [Google Scholar]
  57. 57.
    Giannoula E, Iakovou I, Giovanella L, Vrachimis A. 2022. Updated clinical management guidance during the COVID-19 pandemic: thyroid nodules and cancer. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 186:G1–7
     [Google Scholar]
  58. 58.
    Peckham H, de Gruijter NM, Raine C et al. 2020. Male sex identified by global COVID-19 meta-analysis as a risk factor for death and ITU admission. Nat. Commun. 11:6317
     [Google Scholar]
  59. 59.
    Dessie ZG, Zewotir T. 2021. Mortality-related risk factors of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 42 studies and 423,117 patients. BMC Infect. Dis. 21:855
     [Google Scholar]
  60. 60.
    Liu D, Ding HL, Chen Y et al. 2021. Comparison of the clinical characteristics and mortalities of severe COVID-19 patients between pre- and post-menopause women and age-matched men. Aging 13:21903–13
     [Google Scholar]
  61. 61.
    Li K, Chen G, Hou H et al. 2021. Analysis of sex hormones and menstruation in COVID-19 women of child-bearing age. Reprod. Biomed. Online 42:260–67
     [Google Scholar]
  62. 62.
    Chen F, Zhu S, Dai Z et al. 2021. Effects of COVID-19 and mRNA vaccines on human fertility. Hum. Reprod. 37:5–13
     [Google Scholar]
  63. 63.
    Dhindsa S, Zhang N, McPhaul MJ et al. 2021. Association of circulating sex hormones with inflammation and disease severity in patients with COVID-19. JAMA Netw. Open 4:e2111398
     [Google Scholar]
  64. 64.
    Subramanian A, Anand A, Adderley NJ et al. 2021. Increased COVID-19 infections in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a population-based study. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 184:637–45
     [Google Scholar]
  65. 65.
    Kolanska K, Hours A, Jonquiere L et al. 2021. Mild COVID-19 infection does not alter the ovarian reserve in women treated with ART. Reprod. Biomed. Online 43:1117–21
     [Google Scholar]
  66. 66.
    Jamieson DJ, Rasmussen SA. 2022. An update on COVID-19 and pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 226:177–86
     [Google Scholar]
  67. 67.
    Villar J, Ariff S, Gunier RB, Thiruvengadam R, Rauch S et al. 2021. Maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality among pregnant women with and without COVID-19 infection: the INTERCOVID multinational cohort study. JAMA Pediatr. 175:817–26
     [Google Scholar]
  68. 68.
    Chmielewska B, Barratt I, Townsend R et al. 2021. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on maternal and perinatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob. Health 9:e759–72
     [Google Scholar]
  69. 69.
    Garcia-Flores V, Romero R, Xu Y et al. 2022. Maternal-fetal immune responses in pregnant women infected with SARS-CoV-2. Nat. Commun. 13:320
     [Google Scholar]
  70. 70.
    Fenizia C, Biasin M, Cetin I et al. 2020. Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 vertical transmission during pregnancy. Nat. Commun. 11:5128
     [Google Scholar]
  71. 71.
    Bechmann N, Barthel A, Schedl A et al. 2022. Sexual dimorphism in COVID-19: potential clinical and public health implications. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 10:221–30
     [Google Scholar]
  72. 72.
    Klein SL, Flanagan KL. 2016. Sex differences in immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 16:626–38
     [Google Scholar]
  73. 73.
    Takahashi T, Ellingson MK, Wong P et al. 2020. Sex differences in immune responses that underlie COVID-19 disease outcomes. Nature 588:315–20
     [Google Scholar]
  74. 74.
    Demonbreun AR, Sancilio A, Velez ME et al. 2021. COVID-19 mRNA vaccination generates greater immunoglobulin G levels in women compared to men. J. Infect. Dis. 224:793–97
     [Google Scholar]
  75. 75.
    Zeng F, Dai C, Cai P et al. 2020. A comparison study of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody between male and female COVID-19 patients: a possible reason underlying different outcome between sex. J. Med. Virol. 92:2050–54
     [Google Scholar]
  76. 76.
    Grzelak L, Velay A, Madec Y et al. 2021. Sex differences in the evolution of neutralizing antibodies to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. J. Infect. Dis. 224:983–88
     [Google Scholar]
  77. 77.
    Colafella KMM, Denton KM. 2018. Sex-specific differences in hypertension and associated cardiovascular disease. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 14:185–201
     [Google Scholar]
  78. 78.
    Mauvais-Jarvis F, Bairey Merz N, Barnes PJ et al. 2020. Sex and gender: modifiers of health, disease, and medicine. Lancet 396:565–82
     [Google Scholar]
  79. 79.
    Qiao Y, Wang XM, Mannan R et al. 2020. Targeting transcriptional regulation of SARS-CoV-2 entry factors ACE2 and TMPRSS2. PNAS 118:1e2021450118
     [Google Scholar]
  80. 80.
    Wu M, Ma L, Xue L et al. 2021. Co-expression of the SARS-CoV-2 entry molecules ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in human ovaries: identification of cell types and trends with age. Genomics 113:3449–60
     [Google Scholar]
  81. 81.
    Yao XH, Luo T, Shi Y et al. 2021. A cohort autopsy study defines COVID-19 systemic pathogenesis. Cell Res. 31:836–46
     [Google Scholar]
  82. 82.
    Nonglait PL, Naik R, Raizada N. 2021. Hypophysitis after COVID-19 infection. Indian J. Endocrinol. Metab. 25:255–56
     [Google Scholar]
  83. 83.
    Misgar RA, Rasool A, Wani AI, Bashir MI. 2021. Central diabetes insipidus (infundibuloneuro hypophysitis): a late complication of COVID-19 infection. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 44:2855–56
     [Google Scholar]
  84. 84.
    Gu WT, Zhou F, Xie WQ et al. 2021. A potential impact of SARS-CoV-2 on pituitary glands and pituitary neuroendocrine tumors. Endocrine 72:340–48
     [Google Scholar]
  85. 85.
    Christ-Crain M, Hoorn EJ, Sherlock M et al. 2021. The management of diabetes insipidus and hyponatraemia. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 185:G35–42
     [Google Scholar]
  86. 86.
    Atila C, Sailer CO, Bassetti S et al. 2021. Prevalence and outcome of dysnatremia in patients with COVID-19 compared to controls. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 184:409–18
     [Google Scholar]
  87. 87.
    Alemzadeh E, Alemzadeh E, Ziaee M et al. 2021. The effect of low serum calcium level on the severity and mortality of Covid patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Immun Inflamm Dis. 9:1219–28
     [Google Scholar]
  88. 88.
    di Filippo L, Doga M, Frara S, Giustina A. 2022. Hypocalcemia in COVID-19: prevalence, clinical significance and therapeutic implications. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 23:299–308
     [Google Scholar]
  89. 89.
    Bilezikian JP, Bikle D, Hewison M et al. 2020. Mechanisms in endocrinology: vitamin D and COVID-19. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 183:R133–47
     [Google Scholar]
  90. 90.
    Jolliffe DA, Camargo CA Jr., Sluyter JD et al. 2021. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis of aggregate data from randomised controlled trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 9:276–92
     [Google Scholar]
  91. 91.
    Oristrell J, Oliva JC, Casado E et al. 2022. Vitamin D supplementation and COVID-19 risk: a population-based, cohort study. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 45:167–79
     [Google Scholar]
  92. 92.
    Dissanayake HA, de Silva NL, Sumanatilleke M et al. 2022. Prognostic and therapeutic role of vitamin D in COVID-19: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 107:51484–502
     [Google Scholar]
  93. 93.
    Stroehlein JK, Wallqvist J, Iannizzi C et al. 2021. Vitamin D supplementation for the treatment of COVID-19: a living systematic review. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 5:CD015043
     [Google Scholar]
  94. 94.
    Cromer SJ, Yu EW. 2021. Challenges and opportunities for osteoporosis care during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:e4795–808
     [Google Scholar]
  95. 95.
    di Filippo L, Formenti AM, Doga M et al. 2021. Radiological thoracic vertebral fractures are highly prevalent in COVID-19 and predict disease outcomes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 106:e602–14
     [Google Scholar]
  96. 96.
    Battisti S, Napoli N, Pedone C et al. 2021. Vertebral fractures and mortality risk in hospitalised patients during the COVID-19 pandemic emergency. Endocrine 74:461–69
     [Google Scholar]
  97. 97.
    Fuggle NR, Singer A, Gill C et al. 2021. How has COVID-19 affected the treatment of osteoporosis? An IOF-NOF-ESCEO global survey. Osteoporos. Int. 32:611–17
     [Google Scholar]
  98. 98.
    Fessler J, Jacobsen T, Lauritzen JB, Jorgensen HL. 2021. Mortality among hip fracture patients infected with COVID-19 perioperatively. Eur. J. Trauma Emerg. Surg. 47:659–64
     [Google Scholar]
  99. 99.
    Oguz SH, Sendur SN, Iremli BG et al. 2022. SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-induced thyroiditis: safety of re-vaccinations and clinical follow-up. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 107:5e1823–34
     [Google Scholar]
  100. 100.
    Lipkind HS, Vazquez-Benitez G, DeSilva M et al. 2022. Receipt of COVID-19 vaccine during pregnancy and preterm or small-for-gestational-age at birth—eight integrated health care organizations, United States, December 15, 2020–July 22, 2021. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 71:26–30
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-033509
Loading
Endocrine Disorders and COVID-19
Annual Review of Medicine 74, 75 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-033509
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-033509
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-med-043021-033509
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error