1932

Abstract

Health effects of dietary fats have been extensively studied for decades. However, controversies exist on the effects of various types of fatty acids, especially saturated fatty acid (SFA), on cardiovascular disease (CVD). Current evidence supports that different types of dietary fatty acids have divergent effects on CVD risk, and the effects also depend strongly on the comparison or replacement macronutrient. A significant reduction in CVD risk can be achieved if SFAs are replaced by unsaturated fats, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids. Intake of industrially produced fat is consistently associated with higher CVD risk. Both n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are associated with lower CVD risk, although the effects of fish oil supplementation remains inconsistent. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans place greater emphasis on types of dietary fat than total amount of dietary fat and recommend replacing SFAs with unsaturated fats, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids for CVD prevention.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064614
2017-08-21
2024-12-10
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/nutr/37/1/annurev-nutr-071816-064614.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064614&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Aro A, Salminen I, Huttunen J, Kardinaal A, van 't Veer P. 1.  et al. 1995. Adipose tissue isomeric trans fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarction in nine countries: the EURAMIC study. Lancet 345:273–78 [Google Scholar]
  2. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Colditz GA, Rosner B. 2.  et al. 1992. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men. Circulation 86:1475–84 [Google Scholar]
  3. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Spiegelman D, Stampfer M, Willett WC. 3.  1996. Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow-up study in the United States. BMJ 313:84–90 [Google Scholar]
  4. Baer DJ, Judd JT, Clevidence BA, Tracy RP. 4.  2004. Dietary fatty acids affect plasma markers of inflammation in healthy men fed controlled diets: a randomized crossover study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79:969–73 [Google Scholar]
  5. Bang HO, Dyerberg J, Nielsen AB. 5.  1971. Plasma lipid and lipoprotein pattern in Greenlandic West-Coast Eskimos. Lancet 1:1143–45 [Google Scholar]
  6. Baylin A, Kabagambe EK, Ascherio A, Spiegelman D, Campos H. 6.  2003. High 18: 2 trans-fatty acids in adipose tissue are associated with increased risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rican adults. J. Nutr. 133:1186–91 [Google Scholar]
  7. Belin RJ, Greenland P, Martin L, Oberman A, Tinker L. 7.  et al. 2011. Fish intake and the risk of incident heart failure: the Women's Health Initiative. Circ. Heart Fail. 4:404–13 [Google Scholar]
  8. Blasbalg TL, Hibbeln JR, Ramsden CE, Majchrzak SF, Rawlings RR. 8.  2011. Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 93:950–62 [Google Scholar]
  9. Brouwer IA, Heeringa J, Geleijnse JM, Zock PL, Witteman JC. 9.  2006. Intake of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids from fish and incidence of atrial fibrillation. The Rotterdam Study. Am. Heart J. 151:857–62 [Google Scholar]
  10. Burr ML, Gilbert J, Holliday Ra, Elwood P, Fehily A. 10.  et al. 1989. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet 334:757–61 [Google Scholar]
  11. 11. Cent. Dis. Control Prev. 2015. Crude and age-adjusted incidence of diagnosed diabetes per 1,000 population aged 18–79 years, United States, 1980–2014 https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/incidence/fig2.htm [Google Scholar]
  12. Chen M, Li Y, Sun Q, Pan A, Manson JE. 12.  et al. 2016. Dairy fat and risk of cardiovascular disease in 3 cohorts of US adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 104:1209–17 [Google Scholar]
  13. Cheng P, Wang J, Shao W. 13.  2016. Monounsaturated fatty acid intake and stroke risk: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis. 25:1326–34 [Google Scholar]
  14. Chiuve SE, Rimm EB, Sandhu RK, Bernstein AM, Rexrode KM. 14.  et al. 2012. Dietary fat quality and risk of sudden cardiac death in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:498–507 [Google Scholar]
  15. Chowdhury R, Stevens S, Gorman D, Pan A, Warnakula S. 15.  et al. 2012. Association between fish consumption, long chain omega 3 fatty acids, and risk of cerebrovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 345:e6698 [Google Scholar]
  16. Chowdhury R, Warnakula S, Kunutsor S, Crowe F, Ward HA. 16.  et al. 2014. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. 160:398–406 [Google Scholar]
  17. Clifton PM, Keogh JB, Noakes M. 17.  2004. Trans fatty acids in adipose tissue and the food supply are associated with myocardial infarction. J. Nutr. 134:874–79 [Google Scholar]
  18. Coles B, Bloodsworth A, Clark SR, Lewis MJ, Cross AR. 18.  et al. 2002. Nitrolinoleate inhibits superoxide generation, degranulation, and integrin expression by human neutrophils: novel antiinflammatory properties of nitric oxide-derived reactive species in vascular cells. Circ. Res. 91:375–81 [Google Scholar]
  19. Dayton S, Pearce ML, Hashimoto S, Dixon WJ, Tomiyasu U. 19.  1969. A controlled clinical trial of a diet high in unsaturated fat in preventing complications of atherosclerosis. Circulation 40:II–163 [Google Scholar]
  20. De Caterina R. 20.  2011. n-3 Fatty acids in cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 364:2439–50 [Google Scholar]
  21. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N. 21.  1999. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 99:779–85 [Google Scholar]
  22. de Oliveira Otto MC, Mozaffarian D, Kromhout D, Bertoni AG, Sibley CT. 22.  et al. 2012. Dietary intake of saturated fat by food source and incident cardiovascular disease: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:397–404 [Google Scholar]
  23. de Oliveira Otto MC, Nettleton JA, Lemaitre RN, Steffen LM, Kromhout D. 23.  et al. 2013. Biomarkers of dairy fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2:e000092 [Google Scholar]
  24. de Souza RJ, Mente A, Maroleanu A, Cozma AI, Ha V. 24.  et al. 2015. Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ 351:h3978 [Google Scholar]
  25. del Gobbo LC, Imamura F, Aslibekyan S, Marklund M, Virtanen JK. 25.  et al. 2016. ω-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid biomarkers and coronary heart disease: pooling project of 19 cohort studies. JAMA Int. Med. 176:1155–66 [Google Scholar]
  26. 26. Diet. Guidel. Advis. Comm. 2015. Scientific report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Rep., USDA US Dep. Health Hum. Serv. Washington, DC: [Google Scholar]
  27. Dietz WH, Scanlon KS. 27.  2012. Eliminating the use of partially hydrogenated oil in food production and preparation. JAMA 308:143–44 [Google Scholar]
  28. Dijkstra SC, Brouwer IA, van Rooij FJ, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Geleijnse JM. 28.  2009. Intake of very long chain n-3 fatty acids from fish and the incidence of heart failure: the Rotterdam Study. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 11:922–28 [Google Scholar]
  29. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvado J, Covas MI, Corella D. 29.  et al. 2013. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N. Engl. J. Med. 368:1279–90 [Google Scholar]
  30. Farvid MS, Ding M, Pan A, Sun Q, Chiuve SE. 30.  et al. 2014. Dietary linoleic acid and risk of coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Circulation 130:1568–78 [Google Scholar]
  31. Ferrucci L, Cherubini A, Bandinelli S, Bartali B, Corsi A. 31.  et al. 2006. Relationship of plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids to circulating inflammatory markers. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91:439–46 [Google Scholar]
  32. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Johnson CL. 32.  1998. Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960–1994. Int. J. Obes. 22:39–47 [Google Scholar]
  33. Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD, Fryar CD, Ogden CL. 33.  2016. Trends in obesity among adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA 315:2284–91 [Google Scholar]
  34. Frantz ID, Dawson EA, Ashman PL, Gatewood L, Bartsch G. 34.  et al. 1989. Test of effect of lipid lowering by diet on cardiovascular risk. The Minnesota Coronary Survey. Arteriosclerosis 9:129–35 [Google Scholar]
  35. Frost L, Vestergaard P. 35.  2005. n-3 Fatty acids consumed from fish and risk of atrial fibrillation or flutter: the Danish Diet, Cancer, and Health Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81:50–54 [Google Scholar]
  36. Galan P, Kesse-Guyot E, Czernichow S, Briancon S, Blacher J, Hercberg S. 36.  2010. Effects of B vitamins and omega 3 fatty acids on cardiovascular diseases: a randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 341:c6273 [Google Scholar]
  37. Geleijnse JM, Giltay EJ, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Kok FJ. 37.  2002. Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: metaregression analysis of randomized trials. J. Hypertens. 20:1493–99 [Google Scholar]
  38. Gillman MW, Cupples LA, Millen BE, Ellison RC, Wolf PA. 38.  1997. Inverse association of dietary fat with development of ischemic stroke in men. JAMA 278:2145–50 [Google Scholar]
  39. Gordon T. 39.  1988. The diet-heart idea. Outline of a history. Am. J. Epidemiol. 127:220–25 [Google Scholar]
  40. Gronroos NN, Chamberlain AM, Folsom AR, Soliman EZ, Agarwal SK. 40.  et al. 2012. Fish, fish-derived n-3 fatty acids, and risk of incident atrial fibrillation in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. PLOS ONE 7:e36686 [Google Scholar]
  41. Guasch-Ferré M, Babio N, Martínez-González MA, Corella D, Ros E. 41.  et al. 2015. Dietary fat intake and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in a population at high risk of cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 102:1563–73 [Google Scholar]
  42. Hall WL. 42.  2009. Dietary saturated and unsaturated fats as determinants of blood pressure and vascular function. Nutr. Res. Rev. 22:18–38 [Google Scholar]
  43. Han SN, Leka LS, Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Schaefer EJ, Meydani SN. 43.  2002. Effect of hydrogenated and saturated, relative to polyunsaturated, fat on immune and inflammatory responses of adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia. J. Lipid Res. 43:445–52 [Google Scholar]
  44. Harding A-H, Day NE, Khaw K-T, Bingham S, Luben R. 44.  et al. 2004. Dietary fat and the risk of clinical type 2 diabetes the European Prospective Investigation of Cancer-Norfolk study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 159:73–82 [Google Scholar]
  45. Harris WS. 45.  2013. Are n-3 fatty acids still cardioprotective?. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 16:141–49 [Google Scholar]
  46. Harris WS, Bulchandani D. 46.  2006. Why do omega-3 fatty acids lower serum triglycerides?. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 17:387–93 [Google Scholar]
  47. Harris WS, Miller M, Tighe AP, Davidson MH, Schaefer EJ. 47.  2008. Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis 197:12–24 [Google Scholar]
  48. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Lefevre M, Toner CD, Colombo J. 48.  et al. 2009. Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. J. Nutr. 139:804S–19S [Google Scholar]
  49. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Rimm E, Kris-Etherton P, Rudel LL. 49.  et al. 2009. Omega-6 fatty acids and risk for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Nutrition Subcommittee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 119:902–7 [Google Scholar]
  50. Harris WS, Poston WC, Haddock CK. 50.  2007. Tissue n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and risk for coronary heart disease events. Atherosclerosis 193:1–10 [Google Scholar]
  51. Harris WS, Shearer GC. 51.  2014. Omega-6 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: friend or foe?. Circulation 130:1562–64 [Google Scholar]
  52. He K, Merchant A, Rimm EB, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ. 52.  et al. 2003. Dietary fat intake and risk of stroke in male US healthcare professionals: 14 year prospective cohort study. BMJ 327:777–82 [Google Scholar]
  53. He K, Song Y, Daviglus ML, Liu K, Van Horn L. 53.  et al. 2004. Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Circulation 109:2705–11 [Google Scholar]
  54. He K, Song Y, Daviglus ML, Liu K, Van Horn L. 54.  et al. 2004. Fish consumption and incidence of stroke a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Stroke 35:1538–42 [Google Scholar]
  55. Hooper L, Bartlett C, Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. 55.  2004. Advice to reduce dietary salt for prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Datab. Syst. Rev. 2004:1CD003656 [Google Scholar]
  56. Houtsmuller A, van Hal-Ferwerda J, Zahn K, Henkes H. 56.  1981. Favorable influences of linoleic acid on the progression of diabetic micro- and macroangiopathy in adult onset diabetes mellitus. Prog. Lipid Res. 20:377–86 [Google Scholar]
  57. Howard BV, Van Horn L, Hsia J, Manson JE, Stefanick ML. 57.  et al. 2006. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA 295:655–66 [Google Scholar]
  58. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Ascherio A, Colditz GA. 58.  et al. 1999. Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70:1001–8 [Google Scholar]
  59. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm E, Colditz GA. 59.  et al. 1997. Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 337:1491–99 [Google Scholar]
  60. Hu FB, Van Dam R, Liu S. 60.  2001. Diet and risk of type II diabetes: the role of types of fat and carbohydrate. Diabetologia 44:805–17 [Google Scholar]
  61. Iso H, Sato S, Kitamura A, Naito Y, Shimamoto T, Komachi Y. 61.  2003. Fat and protein intakes and risk of intraparenchymal hemorrhage among middle-aged Japanese. Am. J. Epidemiol. 157:32–39 [Google Scholar]
  62. Iso H, Sato S, Umemura U, Kudo M, Koike K. 62.  et al. 2002. Linoleic acid, other fatty acids, and the risk of stroke. Stroke 33:2086–93 [Google Scholar]
  63. Iso H, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rexrode K, Hu FB. 63.  et al. 2001. Prospective study of fat and protein intake and risk of intraparenchymal hemorrhage in women. Circulation 103:856–63 [Google Scholar]
  64. Jakobsen MU, O'Reilly EJ, Heitmann BL, Pereira MA, Balter K. 64.  et al. 2009. Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89:1425–32 [Google Scholar]
  65. Jakobsen MU, Overvad K, Dyerberg J, Heitmann BL. 65.  2008. Intake of ruminant trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease. Int. J. Epidemiol. 37:173–82 [Google Scholar]
  66. Jiménez-Gómez Y, López-Miranda J, Blanco-Colio LM, Marín C, Pérez-Martínez P. 66.  et al. 2009. Olive oil and walnut breakfasts reduce the postprandial inflammatory response in mononuclear cells compared with a butter breakfast in healthy men. Atherosclerosis 204:e70–76 [Google Scholar]
  67. Jousilahti P, Laatikainen T, Peltonen M, Borodulin K, Männistö S. 67.  et al. 2016. Primary prevention and risk factor reduction in coronary heart disease mortality among working aged men and women in eastern Finland over 40 years: population-based observational study. BMJ 352:i721 [Google Scholar]
  68. Keogh JB, Grieger JA, Noakes M, Clifton PM. 68.  2005. Flow-mediated dilatation is impaired by a high-saturated fat diet but not by a high-carbohydrate diet. Arteriosclerosis Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25:1274–79 [Google Scholar]
  69. Keys A. 69.  1953. Atherosclerosis: a problem in newer public health. J. Mt. Sinai Hosp. 20:118–39 [Google Scholar]
  70. Keys A. 70.  1970. Coronary heart disease in seven countries. Circulation 41:186–95 [Google Scholar]
  71. Kleber ME, Delgado GE, Lorkowski S, März W, von Schacky C. 71.  2015. Trans-fatty acids and mortality in patients referred for coronary angiography: the Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health Study. Eur. Heart J. 37:1072–78 [Google Scholar]
  72. Kris-Etherton PM. 72.  1999. Monounsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 100:1253–58 [Google Scholar]
  73. Kris-Etherton PM, Yu S. 73.  1997. Individual fatty acid effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins: human studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65:1628S–44S [Google Scholar]
  74. Kromhout D, Giltay EJ, Geleijnse JM. 74.  2010. n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 363:2015–26 [Google Scholar]
  75. Larsson SC, Wolk A. 75.  2016. Fish, long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and incidence of atrial fibrillation: a pooled analysis of two prospective studies. Clin. Nutr. 36:537–41 [Google Scholar]
  76. Laurent G, Moe G, Hu X, Holub B, Leong-Poi H. 76.  et al. 2008. Long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce atrial vulnerability in a novel canine pacing model. Cardiovasc. Res. 77:89–97 [Google Scholar]
  77. Lemaitre RN, King IB, Mozaffarian D, Sotoodehnia N, Rea TD. 77.  et al. 2006. Plasma phospholipid trans fatty acids, fatal ischemic heart disease, and sudden cardiac death in older adults. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 114:209–15 [Google Scholar]
  78. Lemaitre RN, Sitlani C, Song X, King IB, McKnight B. 78.  et al. 2012. Circulating and dietary alpha-linolenic acid and incidence of congestive heart failure in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:269–74 [Google Scholar]
  79. León H, Shibata MC, Sivakumaran S, Dorgan M, Chatterley T, Tsuyuki RT. 79.  2008. Effect of fish oil on arrhythmias and mortality: systematic review. BMJ 337:a2931 [Google Scholar]
  80. Leren P. 80.  1970. The Oslo Diet-Heart Study eleven-year report. Circulation 42:935–42 [Google Scholar]
  81. Levitan EB, Cook NR, Stampfer MJ, Ridker PM, Rexrode KM. 81.  et al. 2008. Dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, blood lipids, and C-reactive protein. Metabolism 57:437–43 [Google Scholar]
  82. Levitan EB, Wolk A, Mittleman MA. 82.  2009. Fish consumption, marine omega-3 fatty acids, and incidence of heart failure: a population-based prospective study of middle-aged and elderly men. Eur. Heart J. 30:1495–500 [Google Scholar]
  83. Levitan EB, Wolk A, Mittleman MA. 83.  2010. Fatty fish, marine omega-3 fatty acids and incidence of heart failure. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 64:587–94 [Google Scholar]
  84. Li Y, Hruby A, Bernstein AM, Ley SH, Wang DD. 84.  et al. 2015. Saturated fats compared with unsaturated fats and sources of carbohydrates in relation to risk of coronary heart disease: a prospective cohort study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 66:1538–48 [Google Scholar]
  85. Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Carrasco W, Jenner JL, Gualtieri LJ. 85.  et al. 1993. Effects of canola, corn, and olive oils on fasting and postprandial plasma lipoproteins in humans as part of a National Cholesterol Education Program step 2 diet. Arteriosclerosis Thromb 13:1533–42 [Google Scholar]
  86. London SJ, Sacks FM, Caesar J, Stampfer MJ, Siguel E, Willett WC. 86.  1991. Fatty acid composition of subcutaneous adipose tissue and diet in postmenopausal US women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54:340–45 [Google Scholar]
  87. Mariani J, Doval HC, Nul D, Varini S, Grancelli H. 87.  et al. 2013. n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids to prevent atrial fibrillation: updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2:e005033 [Google Scholar]
  88. Marik PE, Varon J. 88.  2009. Omega‐3 dietary supplements and the risk of cardiovascular events: a systematic review. Clin. Cardiol. 32:365–72 [Google Scholar]
  89. Martínez-González MA, Dominguez LJ, Delgado-Rodríguez M. 89.  2014. Olive oil consumption and risk of CHD and/or stroke: a meta-analysis of case-control, cohort and intervention studies. Br. J. Nutr. 112:248 [Google Scholar]
  90. McMurray HF, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. 90.  1993. Oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein is a chemoattractant for human T lymphocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 92:1004 [Google Scholar]
  91. Mensink R, Zock P, Katan M, Hornstra G. 91.  1992. Effect of dietary cis and trans fatty acids on serum lipoprotein [a] levels in humans. J. Lipid Res. 33:1493–501 [Google Scholar]
  92. Mensink RP, Katan MB. 92.  1990. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects. N. Engl. J. Med. 323:439–45 [Google Scholar]
  93. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB. 93.  2003. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:1146–55 [Google Scholar]
  94. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS. 94.  2009. A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 169:659–69 [Google Scholar]
  95. Miettinen M, Karvonen M, Turpeinen O, Elosuo R, Paavilainen E. 95.  1972. Effect of cholesterol-lowering diet on mortality from coronary heart-disease and other causes: a twelve-year clinical trial in men and women. Lancet 300:835–38 [Google Scholar]
  96. Miettinen M, Turpeinen O, Karvonen M, Pekkarinen M, Paavilainen E, Elosuo R. 96.  1983. Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease in women: the Finnish mental hospital study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 12:17–25 [Google Scholar]
  97. Morris JN, Ball KP, Antonis A, Brigden WW, Burns-Cox CJ. 97.  et al. 1968. Controlled trial of soya-bean oil in myocardial infarction: report of a Research Committee to the Medical Research Council. Lancet 292:693–700 [Google Scholar]
  98. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ. 98.  et al. 2015. Heart disease and stroke statistics: 2016 update. Circulation 132:e1–323 [Google Scholar]
  99. Mozaffarian D, Bryson CL, Lemaitre RN, Burke GL, Siscovick DS. 99.  2005. Fish intake and risk of incident heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45:2015–21 [Google Scholar]
  100. Mozaffarian D, Geelen A, Brouwer IA, Geleijnse JM, Zock PL, Katan MB. 100.  2005. Effect of fish oil on heart rate in humans a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation 112:1945–52 [Google Scholar]
  101. Mozaffarian D, Jacobson MF, Greenstein JS. 101.  2010. Food reformulations to reduce trans fatty acids. N. Engl. J. Med. 362:2037–39 [Google Scholar]
  102. Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. 102.  2006. Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 354:1601–13 [Google Scholar]
  103. Mozaffarian D, Lemaitre RN, King IB, Song X, Huang H. 103.  et al. 2013. Plasma phospholipid long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and total and cause-specific mortality in older adults: a cohort study. Ann. Intern. Med. 158:515–25 [Google Scholar]
  104. Mozaffarian D, Lemaitre RN, King IB, Song X, Spiegelman D. 104.  et al. 2011. Circulating long-chain ω-3 fatty acids and incidence of congestive heart failure in older adults: the cardiovascular health study: a cohort study. Ann. Intern. Med. 155:160–70 [Google Scholar]
  105. Mozaffarian D, Micha R, Wallace S. 105.  2010. Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLOS Med 7:e1000252 [Google Scholar]
  106. Mozaffarian D, Psaty BM, Rimm EB, Lemaitre RN, Burke GL. 106.  et al. 2004. Fish intake and risk of incident atrial fibrillation. Circulation 110:368–73 [Google Scholar]
  107. Mozaffarian D, Wu JH. 107.  2011. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 58:2047–67 [Google Scholar]
  108. 108. Natl. Conf. State Legis. 2013. Trans fat and menu labeling legislation http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/trans-fat-and-menu-labeling-legislation.aspx [Google Scholar]
  109. Oh K, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. 109.  2005. Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow-up of the Nurses’ Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 161:672–79 [Google Scholar]
  110. Oomen CM, Ocké MC, Feskens EJ, van Erp-Baart M-AJ, Kok FJ, Kromhout D. 110.  2001. Association between trans fatty acid intake and 10-year risk of coronary heart disease in the Zutphen Elderly Study: a prospective population-based study. Lancet 357:746–51 [Google Scholar]
  111. Pacheco YM, López S, Bermúdez B, Abia R, Villar J, Muriana FJ. 111.  2008. A meal rich in oleic acid beneficially modulates postprandial sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 in normotensive and hypertensive hypertriglyceridemic subjects. J. Nutr. Biochem. 19:200–5 [Google Scholar]
  112. Page IH, Allen EV, Chamberlain FL, Keys A, Stamler J, Stare FJ. 112.  1961. Dietary fat and its relation to heart attacks and strokes. Circulation 23:133–36 [Google Scholar]
  113. Pan A, Chen M, Chowdhury R, Wu JH, Sun Q. 113.  et al. 2012. α-Linolenic acid and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:1262–73 [Google Scholar]
  114. Perez-Jimenez F, Lopez-Miranda J, Pinillos M, Gomez P, Paz-Rojas E. 114.  et al. 2001. A Mediterranean and a high-carbohydrate diet improve glucose metabolism in healthy young persons. Diabetologia 44:2038–43 [Google Scholar]
  115. Pietinen P, Ascherio A, Korhonen P, Hartman AM, Willett WC. 115.  et al. 1997. Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 145:876–87 [Google Scholar]
  116. Pischon T, Hankinson SE, Hotamisligil GS, Rifai N, Willett WC, Rimm EB. 116.  2003. Habitual dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in relation to inflammatory markers among US men and women. Circulation 108:155–60 [Google Scholar]
  117. Praagman J, Beulens JW, Alssema M, Zock PL, Wanders AJ. 117.  et al. 2016. The association between dietary saturated fatty acids and ischemic heart disease depends on the type and source of fatty acid in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition–Netherlands cohort. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 103:356–65 [Google Scholar]
  118. Ramsden CE, Hibbeln JR, Majchrzak SF, Davis JM. 118.  2010. n-6 Fatty acid-specific and mixed polyunsaturate dietary interventions have different effects on CHD risk: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br. J. Nutr. 104:1586–600 [Google Scholar]
  119. Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Leelarthaepin B, Majchrzak-Hong SF, Faurot KR. 119.  et al. 2013. Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study and updated meta-analysis. BMJ 346:e8707 [Google Scholar]
  120. Ramsden CE, Zamora D, Majchrzak-Hong S, Faurot KR, Broste SK. 120.  et al. 2016. Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968–73). BMJ 353:i1246 [Google Scholar]
  121. Rauch B, Schiele R, Schneider S, Diller F, Victor N. 121.  et al. 2010. OMEGA, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial to test the effect of highly purified omega-3 fatty acids on top of modern guideline-adjusted therapy after myocardial infarction. Circulation 122:2152–59 [Google Scholar]
  122. Rix TA, Joensen AM, Riahi S, Lundbye-Christensen S, Tjønneland A. 122.  et al. 2014. A U-shaped association between consumption of marine n-3 fatty acids and development of atrial fibrillation/atrial flutter—a Danish cohort study. Europace 16:1554–61 [Google Scholar]
  123. Rose G, Thomson W, Williams R. 123.  1965. Corn oil in treatment of ischaemic heart disease. BMJ 1:1531 [Google Scholar]
  124. Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JHY, Appel LJ, Creager MA. 123a.  et al. 2017. Dietary fats and cardiovascular disease: a presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation 135:25 https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  125. Sakabe M, Shiroshita-Takeshita A, Maguy A, Dumesnil C, Nigam A. 124.  et al. 2007. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids prevent atrial fibrillation associated with heart failure but not atrial tachycardia remodeling. Circulation 116:2101–9 [Google Scholar]
  126. Salmeron J, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA. 125.  et al. 2001. Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73:1019–26 [Google Scholar]
  127. Sanders T, Lewis F, Frost G, Goff L, Chowienczyk P. 126.  2008. Impact of the amount and type of fat and carbohydrate on vascular function in the RISCK study. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 67:E315 [Google Scholar]
  128. Saravanan P, Davidson NC, Schmidt EB, Calder PC. 127.  2010. Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Lancet 376:540–50 [Google Scholar]
  129. Sauvaget C, Nagano J, Hayashi M, Yamada M. 128.  2004. Animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol intakes and risk of cerebral infarction mortality in the adult health study. Stroke 35:1531–37 [Google Scholar]
  130. Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. 129.  2014. Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and health status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lipids Health Dis 13:154 [Google Scholar]
  131. Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, Krauss RM. 130.  2010. Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91:535–46 [Google Scholar]
  132. Skuladottir GV, Heidarsdottir R, Arnar DO, Torfason B, Edvardsson V. 131.  et al. 2011. Plasma n‐3 and n‐6 fatty acids and the incidence of atrial fibrillation following coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 41:995–1003 [Google Scholar]
  133. Sun Q, Ma J, Campos H, Hankinson SE, Manson JE. 132.  et al. 2007. A prospective study of trans fatty acids in erythrocytes and risk of coronary heart disease. Circulation 115:1858–65 [Google Scholar]
  134. Sun Q, Ma J, Campos H, Hu FB. 133.  2007. Plasma and erythrocyte biomarkers of dairy fat intake and risk of ischemic heart disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 86:929–37 [Google Scholar]
  135. Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, Barlera S, Franzosi MG. 134.  et al. 2008. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 372:1223–30 [Google Scholar]
  136. Turpeinen O, Pekkarinen M, Miettinen M, Elosuo R, Paavilainen E. 135.  1979. Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease: the Finnish Mental Hospital Study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 8:99–118 [Google Scholar]
  137. 136. US Dep. Health Hum. Serv., US Dep. Agric. 2015. 2015–2020 dietary guidelines for Americans https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/ [Google Scholar]
  138. Van Dam RM, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB. 137.  2002. Dietary fat and meat intake in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 25:417–24 [Google Scholar]
  139. Vesper HW, Kuiper HC, Mirel LB, Johnson CL, Pirkle JL. 138.  2012. Levels of plasma trans-fatty acids in non-Hispanic white adults in the United States in 2000 and 2009. JAMA 307:562–63 [Google Scholar]
  140. Vessby B, Uusitupa M, Hermansen K, Riccardi G, Rivellese AA. 139.  et al. 2001. Substituting dietary saturated for monounsaturated fat impairs insulin sensitivity in healthy men and women: the KANWU study. Diabetologia 44:312–19 [Google Scholar]
  141. Virtanen JK, Mursu J, Voutilainen S, Tuomainen T-P. 140.  2009. Serum long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of hospital diagnosis of atrial fibrillation in men. Circulation 120:2315–21 [Google Scholar]
  142. Wang DD, Li Y, Chiuve SE, Hu FB, Willett WC. 141.  2015. Improvements in US diet helped reduce disease burden and lower premature deaths, 1999–2012; overall diet remains poor. Health Aff 34:1916–22 [Google Scholar]
  143. Wang DD, Li Y, Chiuve SE, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE. 142.  et al. 2016. Association of specific dietary fats with total and cause-specific mortality. JAMA Intern. Med. 176:1134–45 [Google Scholar]
  144. Wang Q, Imamura F, Lemaitre RN, Rimm EB, Wang M. 143.  et al. 2014. Plasma phospholipid trans-fatty acids levels, cardiovascular diseases, and total mortality: the cardiovascular health study. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 3:e000914 [Google Scholar]
  145. Watts G, Lewis B, Lewis E, Coltart D, Smith L. 144.  et al. 1992. Effects on coronary artery disease of lipid-lowering diet, or diet plus cholestyramine, in the St Thomas’ Atherosclerosis Regression Study (STARS). Lancet 339:563–69 [Google Scholar]
  146. Wilk JB, Tsai MY, Hanson NQ, Gaziano JM, Djousse L. 145.  2012. Plasma and dietary omega-3 fatty acids, fish intake, and heart failure risk in the Physicians’ Health Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96:882–88 [Google Scholar]
  147. Willett WC. 146.  2012. Dietary fats and coronary heart disease. J. Intern. Med. 272:13–24 [Google Scholar]
  148. Willett WC. 147.  2013. Food frequency methods. See Ref. 150, ch. 5
  149. Willett WC. 148.  2013. Reproducibility and validity of food-frequency questionnaires. See Ref. 150, ch. 6
  150. Willett WC. 149.  2013. Issues in analysis and presentation of dietary data. See Ref. 150, ch. 13
  151. Willet WC. 150.  2013. Nutritional Epidemiology New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 3rd ed.. [Google Scholar]
  152. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Manson J, Colditz GA, Speizer FE. 151.  et al. 1993. Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women. Lancet 341:581–85 [Google Scholar]
  153. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Sacks FM. 152.  2014. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk. Ann. Intern. Med. 161:453 [Google Scholar]
  154. Witteman J, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Sacks FM. 153.  et al. 1989. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US women. Circulation 80:1320–27 [Google Scholar]
  155. Witztum JL, Steinberg D. 154.  1991. Role of oxidized low density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. J. Clin. Invest. 88:1785 [Google Scholar]
  156. Wu JH, Lemaitre RN, King IB, Song X, Sacks FM. 155.  et al. 2012. Association of plasma phospholipid long-chain ω-3 fatty acids with incident atrial fibrillation in older adults. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 125:1084–93 [Google Scholar]
  157. Xu J, Eilat-Adar S, Loria C, Goldbourt U, Howard BV. 156.  et al. 2006. Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease: the Strong Heart Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84:894–902 [Google Scholar]
  158. Yakoob MY, Shi P, Hu FB, Campos H, Rexrode KM. 157.  et al. 2014. Circulating biomarkers of dairy fat and risk of incident stroke in US men and women in 2 large prospective cohorts. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 100:1437–47 [Google Scholar]
  159. Yakoob MY, Shi P, Willett WC, Rexrode KM, Campos H. 158.  et al. 2016. Circulating biomarkers of dairy fat and risk of incident diabetes mellitus among men and women in the United States in two large prospective cohorts. Circulation 133:1645–54 [Google Scholar]
  160. Yamagishi K, Nettleton JA, Folsom AR. 159.  ARIC Study Investig 2008. Plasma fatty acid composition and incident heart failure in middle-aged adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Am. Heart J. 156:965–74 [Google Scholar]
  161. Zong G, Li Y, Wanders AJ, Alssema M, Zock PL. 160.  et al. 2016. Intakes of individual saturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in two large prospective cohort studies of U.S. men and women. BMJ 355:i5796 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064614
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064614
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error